The degree of sharpness becomes so high. The concept of global issues. Methods for measuring hotness

Two excerpts and several scenes, subsequently reworked by the author into separate dramatic works, - that’s all that remains of the first, unfinished comedy of Gogol, created in 1832-1833. However, if you include these few and scattered fragments in the context of the entire writer's work, consider them against the background of the literary process, which was then distinguished by its special dynamics, brightness and novelty, they will appear as a special, albeit short, link in the series of works that brought fame to Gogol and enriched Russian literature.

The very name of the unfinished comedy - “Vladimir of the 3rd degree”, which is certainly associated with its keynote - emphasizes the author’s intention to compose a play on an urgent topic in which the characters would be closely connected with the everyday life of Russian society, specifically with the St. Petersburg bureaucracy. Indeed, career ambitions and ambition have always manifested themselves with particular force in the prospect of receiving an honorary award, distinction, or career advancement. According to M. S. Shchepkin, recorded by V. Rodislavsky, it was precisely "the efforts of the hero of the play to get this order that made up the plot of the comedy and gave it a rich outline, which the actor concludes," our great comedian used perfectly. "

It was in the first half of the 19th century, especially under Nicholas I, that it was customary to award orders not only for special services to the state, but - most often - for everyday joy in public places and institutions, or simply for length of service, so already in 30- fy. they began to look at some less prestigious and honorable orders as beautiful, but quite ordinary signs of the next career advancement. “Vladimir of the 3rd degree”, while retaining its importance as an honorary government award, opened the way to other higher orders, which only generals, nobles, and top officials in the state, who had occupied the highest levels in the “Table of Ranks”, were awarded.

Gogol himself, reflecting on how the knightly orders arose, obviously attached great importance to their spiritual and religious roots. So, shortly after writing scenes of an unfinished play, in his lecture program on the history of the Middle Ages (1834), he called the congregations of knight monks “Christian islands” that arose as “consequences of the Crusades,” and pointed out the exceptional difficulties that the warriors encountered in Christ "among the Mohammedan neighbors."

In the article “On the Middle Ages” of 1834, Gogol, not without bitterness reminding contemporaries of the fortitude, depth of faith and dedication of medieval order-bearers, writes that they had “nothing for their own benefit, or for their existence,” and emphasizes them readiness “to destroy everything that constitutes a person’s desire, and live for all of humanity; to live in order to be formidable guardians of the world, to carry in itself one thing: the protection of the Faith of Christ; sacrifice everything to her and give up everything that responds to the benefit of life! ”(VIII, 22).

However, over time, the order-bearers began to forget about the true goals of the orders to which they belonged, and gradually became money-grubbers and, often, even cynical seekers of easy money. And although European sovereigns established an increasing number of orders, among the growing number of initiates in them, it was difficult to find people who were deeply religious. Thus, knightly orders turned into peculiar guild corporations for privileged persons - nobles, nobles and high-ranking officials, to whom the orders, under the auspices of the king and the state, guaranteed a special property and legal status in society and at court. All the more consistent with this changed position of the initiates in the orders themselves were the badges themselves: famous jewelers often made them from precious metals, decorated with diamonds.

In Russia, the first orders were established by Peter the Great, who was going to reward them with particularly distinguished service to the Tsar and the Fatherland. In the light of Peter's reforms, the orders themselves acquired a clearly secular character, and the essence of their moral and ethical significance was increasingly determined by the influence of the Enlightenment.

The Order of St. Vladimir was introduced by Catherine II in 1782 on the occasion of the twentieth anniversary of her reign.

The least honorable was the fourth degree, which corresponded to the most modest order badge. “Vladimir of the 3rd degree” was a small neck on the ribbon along which three stripes passed: red - in the center and two black - in the curbs. The cross itself was made of gold, covered with “red enamel with a black border around the edges, with the image in the center against the ermine mantle of the monograms of St. Vladimir under the grand crown”.

This order, which has a three-syllable motto - “Benefit, Honor and Glory” - was awarded to citizens both for special one-time services to the Tsar and the Fatherland, and for many years of conscientious performance of official duties in the presence and departments. At the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I, the Order of St. Vladimir of the 3rd or 4th degree was most often marked by officials simply for their impeccable service and long service. Often then, other orders were awarded for activities quite ordinary, of little significance to the state.

Gogol was very critical of such facts. In particular, in the play Theatrical Journey, he expressed his indignation in the face of a “very modestly dressed man” in a sharply ironic, bordering on sarcasm form. “At us, right,” the aforementioned lamented, “it dawned on us that not only on the occasion of some feat, but simply, unless otherwise spoils anyone in life and in the service, God already considers himself to be a good man, angry seriously if they do not notice and do not reward him. “Have mercy,” says: I have lived honestly for a century, almost never did any meanness — how can they give me no rank or order? ”(V, 149).

In excerpts of “Vladimir of the 3rd degree”, Gogol’s critic reaches the strength and severity of the grotesque. This is confirmed by the characteristics of the main character - an inveterate swindler, an avid gambler, a bribe taker and a careerist, who nevertheless allows himself to solicit such a high and prestigious award as the Order of St. Vladimir, then, even of the 3rd degree. The essence of Gogol’s views on undeserved orders and awards could be expressed in the best way possible as expressed by the statement attributed to A. Pushkin: “It is awkward to not have orders for an employee, but it’s embarrassing to wear them.” After all, the orders were supposed to develop a sense of respect for public service and its steps, as enshrined in the Table of Ranks in 1722. But over time, the public importance of serving the Fatherland for many officials began to be replaced by the importance of personal success or the practice of serving the boss.

Under Nicholas I, the number of officials increased sharply, as the number of ministries, departments and other institutions increased. Accordingly, by the beginning of the 1830s. (when Gogol worked on the play), the circle of those awarded was markedly expanded. But they continued to strive for orders: they remained signs of honor, testifying to the favor of the authorities and promotion through the ranks. And some high-ranking officials wore the Order of St. Vladimir, for example, even being "in a morning elegant dressing gown at the reception of their subordinates and guests."

Gogol builds the image of the main character, having the starting point of the order, and not the rank. Everything should come as if “from the opposite”: first - the order, and then, possibly, the rank, while in reality the assignment of the rank could be accompanied by the award “on the rank”.

A similar “inverse” perspective when creating individual images, and often even the entire composition of a work, including a system of heroes and characters, becomes characteristic of Gogol. So, as if “from the opposite” - from the initial “reduction to absurdity” and from extremely negative to positive — for example, the composition of “Dead Souls”, the very image of Chichikov and the images of the landowners, who were to “ennoble” to the final third part, are being built poems.

Compositions of the play “The Inspector General” and the novel “The Nose” turn out to be typologically similar: here typical well-known officials - the city manager Skvoznik-Dmukhanovsky and Major Kovalev - suddenly come across a situation so absurd that they easily lose their heads and show all their baseness and vulgarity, usually hidden by a mask of decency . These officials have built their life and build on the basis of rank. It is no accident that the mayor, dreaming of his “future” life in St. Petersburg, presents himself first as a general, and then as a gentleman of the corresponding high order, when he says to himself: “They will hang the cavalry over your shoulder” (IV, 82). For Major Kovalev, the title is so important in life that it even obscures and obscures his name. This becomes especially noticeable when, having lost his nose, the hero unlearnes even to call himself - to pronounce his own surname. And then he begins to present himself to others in general terms, impersonally: “... a college assessor or, even better, consisting of a Major rank” (III, 60). The order, probably, seems to him only as a decorative and befitting “weight” to the rank, and therefore an object desirable and necessary, which, in any case, should be acquired. And when Major Kovalev regains his nose, he will one day be noticed “in front of a bench in the Gostiny Dvor and buying some order ribbon, it is not known for what reason, because he himself was not a knight of any order” (III, 75).

Thus, both Gogol's first, unfinished play and his other works on bureaucracy emphasized the discrepancy between the flawed and vicious inner world of many employees and the external, conspicuous signs of their distinction - in fact, “false confirmations” of their decency and social significance. And it even turned out that the very characters of the officials, the way of thinking and behavior, not only depended on the ranks and awards, but, as it were, were completely determined by them.

In the comedy “Vladimir of the 3rd degree”, Barsukov, when his ambitious plans were upset and he lost all the opportunity to ever receive the order, unable to withstand disappointment, goes crazy. Continuing with all his might to strive for a reward, he plastically, with his body, as if reproduces the outline of the order, identifying with it completely.

However, one can only judge this final scene of the comedy based on the recollections of Gogol's contemporaries. So, V. Rodislavsky, in turn, referring to the testimony of M. S. Shchepkin, writes: “At the end of the play, her hero went crazy and imagined that he himself was Vladimir of the 3rd degree. With particular praise, M. S. Shchepkin spoke of the scene in which the hero of the play, sitting in front of the mirror, dreams of Vladimir of the 3rd degree and imagines that this cross is already on him. ” P.V. Annenkov spoke in more detail about the comedy finale: “In the last scene, a madman, imagining himself a cross, stands in front of a mirror, raises his hands in such a way ... that he makes himself look like a cross and does not look at the image”.

According to this evidence, it can be assumed that the finale of the unfinished comedy could somehow resemble the final “silent scene” of the “Examiner”. A common feature of both scenes was the "petrification" of the characters, which caused "the highest degree of shock, expressing the horror of the characters before the unexpected outcome of events." Both finals are also similar in that they unexpectedly and sharply debunk the sterile, but rather ambitious hopes of the characters for success, thus fulfilling the role of a climax in the “mirage intrigue”. But the very seemingly petrified figure of Barsukov with his arms spread out like a cross probably precedes the pose of a city official indicated by the author’s remarks to the final scene of the Inspector General, who was supposed to stand in the center of the stage space “in the form of a pillar, with outstretched arms and his head thrown back” (IV, 95).

The character's pose frozen in time typologically goes back to the characteristics of the genre of "live pictures". The creation of “live pictures” was obviously due to the fact that “it was a pleasure for the audience’s eyes to see one moment of fluid life fixedly and calmly, slowly, to look at all the details”. Barsukov himself should have experienced such pleasure when he saw his reflection in the mirror when he became a “living picture” depicting the object of his dreams - the Order of St. Vladimir. However, the spectators, observing the “live picture”, were well aware that this was the result of a peculiar stage effect, while Barsukov, who had lost his mind, was not able to distinguish fiction from reality. Indeed, for him, the mirror fulfills a seemingly very real function of fulfilling his desires. The viewer in mirror reflection discovers the symbolic meaning of this scene - as Yu. V. Mann writes, the “ironic projection” of the “vanity of human ambition, the pursuit of ghosts”.

The mirror effect for revealing the character’s inner world was already used by A. Pushkin in 1830 in his novel “Shot”. O. B. Zaslavsky noted this trick very subtly and correctly, commenting on the last meeting of opponents: “Silvio meets the count in his office by the fireplace, the count stands opposite Silvio“ there in the corner ”. But in the count’s office “above the marble fireplace” there was a wide mirror. Therefore, raising a gun against Silvio contrary to the rules of the duel and the requirements of honor, the count aimed at his mirror double. The moral self-destruction of the count, which Silvio sought so much ("I made you shoot at me"), gets a visible, visual image: in a certain sense, Silvio forced the count to shoot at himself, that is, to destroy the integrity of the human person, to violate self-identity. "

Thus, the count is ashamed of his reflection and rejects it, and Barsukov, on the contrary, would like to identify with him. However, in that and in the other case, the mirror as if projects the punishment prepared by him for the unrighteous behavior on the characters: the count then is constantly tormented with remorse, and Barsukov goes crazy. Although, as V. Gippius observes, “Barsukov’s craziness is not tragic, it is covered by the tradition of punishing vice - an ambitious enthusiasm and cheating.”

Gogol linked his special mission to the comic writer primarily with the theater. The idea of \u200b\u200b“Vladimir of the 3rd degree” was hatched by a young playwright during a period of great disappointment in public service. This, obviously, caused the choice of the theme and plot of his first comedy and the desire to show in a comic manner the everyday life of St. Petersburg officials. However, in the future, Gogol began to believe that he was fulfilling his peculiar mission of a comic writer not as an "empty buffoon", but as an "honest official of the great God's state."

The incomparable sense of the comic that Gogol has always been distinguished with is especially evident in his unfinished comedy “Vladimir of the 3rd degree”. According to the author’s plan, it should have turned out “with anger, laughter and salt.” Thus, the “easy laugh” of “Evenings”, “serving for idle amusement and amusement of people,” gives way to laughing “gall”, sarcastic and venomous - as Gogol himself defined in “Theater Travel” - “a laugh that is generated by temporary irritability , biliary, painful disposition of character ”(V, 169). “Gall laughter” in Gogol’s artistic style is a passing phenomenon, since he was soon replaced by the “electric, life-giving” laughter of the “Inspector”. However, “gall laughter” was not forgotten and lost by literature, it was further developed among the variety of artistic means of depiction used by the writers - heirs of Gogol.

Laughing "bile laugh" "underground man" Dostoevsky. Moreover, his very first remarks testify to his predisposition to “bile laughter” of the hero of Notes from the Underground: “I am a sick man ... I am an evil man. I’m not an attractive person. I think my liver hurts. ”

It turns out that “bile laughter” accompanies all the statements of an “underground man” of varying degrees of strength. He colors his remarks in such a contrast that it significantly affects their meaning and, gradually hyperbolizing the charge of evil irony in them, turns their meaning into a paradox. So, continuing to talk about his “sick liver”, the “underground man” became so angry that, laughing desperately at himself, he concluded: “But still, if I am not being treated, it is out of spite. The liver hurts, so let it hurt even more. " And the similarity between the words “underground man” and Gogol’s definition of “gall laughter” is so obvious that it can hardly be considered accidental. Moreover, in the draft entry “For the Preface” to the novel “The Teenager”, Dostoevsky himself, emphasizing his role in the discovery of the “underground”, connects this with the work and personality of Gogol.

Still taking up work on Vladimir the 3rd Degree, Gogol foresaw cumbersome censorship restrictions and in a letter to Pogodin (early 1833) complained that he “had no choice but to invent the plot of the most innocent, who even quarterly could not be offended. But what a comedy without truth and anger! ”(X, 263).

Gogol also thought about the possible reaction of the public to his comedy, fearing that the audience might be offended by it, firstly, because laughter, by force and the severity of its causticity, mercilessly exposed vices, that is, revealed the complete "truth" without embellishment; secondly, due to the fact that the viewer could identify himself in the mocked character.

According to A. Bergson’s definition, "comedy can only begin where the personality of another person ceases to touch us."

“Vladimir of the 3rd degree” with the acuteness of the problems posed and the satirical characteristics of the main character could not “not touch the lively” audience, for, as Gogol argued in “Theater Ride”, “comedy should be a picture and a mirror of our public life” (V , 160), whose vices on the stage should be opened and ridiculed.

Obviously, in The Examiner, these views of the playwright received the most consistent and complete artistic expression, and the ambiguous and harsh reaction of the audience prompted Gogol to think about the meaning of laughter in his work in general and influenced the ethical orientation of his thoughts.

In “The Theater Ride”, the playwright, in particular, made it clear that the laughter in “The Inspector General” cannot be considered offensive, since it does not adorn, but stigmatizes vice, in order to arouse spectators' disgust for him and, therefore, push away doubters and strayers from him. . The ridiculed vice is hyperbolized “to the point of absurdity”, to the extent of ugliness that the viewer can no longer endure - and wants to cleanse himself, run away, free himself from the vice. Defending such a method of correction, Gogol sets as an example a certain father who, “wanting to uproot his son from a hectic life, did not waste words and instructions, but led him to the infirmary, where terrible traces of a hectic life appeared before him in horror” (V, 151).

However, by its logic, such a correction is paradoxical, because in fact it allows vice to freely manifest itself and develop until it has outlived itself - it will not destroy itself with its own vicious nature. The paradoxicalness of the ways of such correction is probably due to the ambiguous, ambivalent reaction of the public at the premiere of The Inspector General.

Gogol’s thoughts on how to mitigate the insulting acrimoniousness of his laughter, to a certain extent, influenced the further development of his creative method. It is no coincidence that the novel “The Overcoat”, on which Gogol worked simultaneously with the play “Theatrical Journey,” is distinguished by a special pathos that arose as a result of the harmony of two principles - comic and humane. But the "Overcoat" made an ambiguous impression on the public. Some readers — among them was the hero of “Poor People” Makar Devushkin — experienced a keen sense of resentment, which Dostoevsky then “through” the hero he created managed to give convincing psychological, social and artistic motivation. Other readers had a strong desire to "improve" reality, to make it more fair and prosperous - in particular, it inspired the writers of the "natural school".

In these moods, both the public and the authors who were guided by them and became their spokesmen, it was precisely those tendencies of spiritual and artistic search that the creative method of Gogol could masterfully identify in the unfinished comedy “Vladimir of the 3rd degree” and give them comprehensive and distinctive interpretation on the pages of his subsequent works.

Ok It is quite a common situation. I want to learn how to sharpen nippers as the most common manicure tool, but training is expensive, often you don’t want to pay the last money for it, and it’s scary and scary to learn yourself.

Useful information can be found on the Internet, but it must also be learned to filter. All people are different, and each sharpener, including and those who share their experience in blogs and forums, their own style, methods and set of materials adapted not only to his knowledge and experience, but also to the requirements and tasks that his clients put before him.

Also, everyone begins to learn to sharpen and learn and advise in completely different ways. Someone nods toward training, which is not cheap at all, but saves time. Others advise to study independently, which is much more economical, but takes more time. Someone says that it’s best to immediately master a grinding machine with a rotating abrasive, and someone - that it’s better to start with a manual sharpening ... By the way, I started through the last option.

All surfaces of ECLAT nippers are processed very well, in most cases all proportions and technological gaps are observed. Nippers have good general polishing and sometimes - high purity of processing of cutting edges. Factory sharpening leaves hope for the tool to operate without visiting the sharpener, although factory sharpening is factory, regardless of the manufacturer of the cutting pliers.

I am sure that admirers of a high-quality manicure tool will appreciate all the advantages of the ECLAT tool, which can become good assistants in the professional work of a manicure master.

photo: ECLAT nail clippers after sharpening

Despite the fact that I liked the ECLAT nippers, I still want to note a few points that may affect their work.

IMHO-1, these nail clippers obviously lack several units in the hardness of steel (by the way, this applies even more to ECLAT scissors). I think that increasing the hardness of steel to 52-54 HRC will lead not only to a noticeable reduction in the cases of damage to the tips during rough handling, but also to an increase in the tool life between sharpening.

IMHO-2, a screw joint makes the connection more reliable, but the appearance is often noticed.

IMHO-3. Often there are wire cutters with a weakened thread for the screw of the discharge spring - I had several cases when I had to drill a hole to a larger diameter and cut a new thread for this element. By the way, the thread itself is very short, has a conical inlet, in which moisture accumulates, which eventually turns into rust. This contributes to and.

IMHO-4. I don’t know, this is just my “luck”, or something else, but recently ECLAT nippers are often found in which (for various reasons) the hinge screw is riveted on the back side - in these cases the whole meaning of the screw connection is lost, although I must note that in such nippers there is practically no radial play, which I mentioned above, and the level of operation of the hinge is at a very decent level. But this is another hinge and other nippers.

ECLAT prewar nippers, 2018 photo.

I’ll try to summarize what I wrote and my impressions of working with ECLAT nippers.

If you want to buy wire cutters, cuticles or scissors ECLAT and you are concerned about the price-quality issue, then the price (taking into account the level of complexity of the articulation of the nippers and the level of sharpening the scissors) with some stretch corresponds to the quality - in my subjective opinion, the tool lacks hardness in steel. Although the impression of their owners of working with the tool often outweighs this argument.

ECLAT nail clippers are convenient, usually reliable and give hope that with careful handling they can faithfully serve the master of manicure that has become its owner. The same can be said for cuticle scissors from ECLAT - it is usually easy and convenient to work with them not only to manicure masters, but also to sharpeners, even despite the subjectively mild steel, which does not allow to fully open the tool made from it. IMHO, of course.

Comfortable work with a good and sharp tool!

Created 09/20/14, Last Updated - 06/03/19
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SHARPENING REQUIRED?   Manicure masters in dnepropetrovsk  in particular and all over Ukraine  in general (3 days, express round-trip delivery), they can be guaranteed to receive qualified sharpening of their tool. QUALITATIVELY! RELIABLE! AVAILABLE! See details -

As for the nippers, it will be easier to understand the not-so-shortest STALEX assortment if you accept the manufacturer’s proposed division of the nail clippers into series, which the STALEX company applies at the time of writing these words:

1. Exclusive NX (old article: N9). Nippers are made of stainless steel grade 95X18 with a hardness, according to sensations, up to 58 HRC (the manufacturer gives figures at 58-60 HRC). Nippers of this series belong to the premium level and are intended for the professional work of manicure masters in beauty salons. By professional work, I mean work by profession, which provides the main income of livelihoods, and not the qualification of a specialist.

2. Expert NE (old articles: N7, K, KL). Expert nail clippers are made of stainless steel grade 40X13 and hardness 50-53 HRC and are intended for professional nail service specialists.

3. Smart NS (old articles: N5, KE). Smart Series wire cutters are made of stainless steel grade 40X13 and hardness 48-50 HRC. They are intended for beginner manicurists who are just taking their first steps in their new profession.

4. Classic NC (old part numbers: N3, KM). They are made of all the same steel 40X13 and have a hardness in the range of 48-50 HRC. Designed for domestic and home use between visits to the nail room.

Similar designations are introduced for manicure scissors, where for the similar series of.site the following designations are given: Exclusive (article 40X13, 50-55 HRC), Expert (steel 40X13, 49-53 HRC), Smart (steel 30X13) and Classic (steel 30X13 )

The photographs show STALEX nail clippers, above - to cut the cuticle, below - the nail. By the way, in the Blog about Sharpening, there is a lot of material about the features and capabilities of nippers and scissors, including STALEX. If the reader is looking for additional information on the tool of this tm, then certainly it will interest him - you can always find it here.

I admit (you won’t throw words out of the song) that back in the years 2011-2013 STALEX nail clippers, called "professional", it was hard to call it in the full sense of the word (there are a lot of it, and often emotionally, it was said and written, incl. . and on this Blog).

In my opinion, this was primarily caused by the technological process of processing, the build quality and shape of most models of cutters. But we must pay tribute to the stubbornness of the manufacturer - he did a good job and today the professional nail clippers of the series (first of all, this is the Expert series in the modern designation and Exclusive, which is described in more detail below) quickly won sympathy among professional manicure masters.

Photo: swivel surfaces on new STALEX nippers

Speaking about the corrected errors of the STALEX nippers of the professional series, I note that the manufacturer solved the problems of heat treatment, the hardness of the rivet of the hinge joint, the quality of assembly and processing of the inner surfaces of the hinge itself.

The nippers have increased technological clearances, making them easier to repair and maintain on the one hand. Although, on the other hand, dirt accumulates in these gaps, and therefore more attention should be paid to cleaning. The use of two outlet springs made of stainless steel, along with an improvement in the articulation, ensures a smooth and soft stroke of the nippers.

Of course, this does not mean that there are no questions, for example, the frequent occurrence of radial play after a few sharpenings (first of all, this refers to the cutters of the younger STALEX series, which for some reason are sometimes used for professional work), unreliable brass rivet (recently found only on some older models), little attention is paid to nail clippers, etc ...

As for steels and its hardness, these data are already given a little higher. I only note that these parameters, which few people pay attention to, will to a large extent depend on how long the tool blades remain sharp. Perhaps this is more critical for a tool that works in the cabin than for a home.

Nail clippers STALEKS EXCLUSIVE

From the experience of servicing those that I met, I note - the EXCLUSIVE series wire cutters deserve their attention. First of all, according to the level of assembly and processing of each of their elements. This, taking into account the hardness of steel, allows us to say cautiously - in Ukraine there is a new and very worthy model of nail clippers made of top-grade steel.

Nevertheless, the drawbacks I would include noticeably short handles, reduced corrosion resistance of the steel used compared to the same. The increased hardness of steel also affects its brittleness, when a fall on the tile can be critical.

Nippers made of steel 95X18 require more thorough care and a responsible approach to the selection of disinfectants. By the way, about the first and second, it is often described in the Sharpening Blog. Here unique information is collected about, and a lot of data for nail service masters is provided.

In conclusion, a few words about STALEX nail scissors. I like their professional use models made from art. 40X13. Large selection, various shapes and sizes. Comfortable in work and sharpening ... A link to the official STALEX website can be found on the page.

P.S. In our workshop you can always sharpen and repair your manicure and pedicure tools. Sharpening services are provided to both residents of Dnipropetrovsk and the whole of Ukraine (delivery by New Mail). Cm. ..

Using social science knowledge, name three positive consequences of the emergence of global problems of our time.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

In our century, the solution to a number of problems can no longer be limited to the scale of one country; they have to be solved on the scale of our entire planet. Such a perception of the planetary nature of man’s relationship with nature first arose in connection with the advent of the atomic bomb and the threat of a world nuclear war. It is generally accepted that such a war, wherever it occurs, could poison a whole globe and end a person’s life in a few hours. This threat forces people to abandon the use of nuclear weapons.

Now the world's population is estimated at 3.7 billion people. If it continues to grow at the same pace (on average 2% per year) as in this century, then after 700 years our planet will be so densely populated that for every square meter of the entire surface of the globe there will be one person. Of course, this is impossible, and the process of increasing the reproduction of people should be cut short before this. When and under what factors will this happen and what will civilization turn into, is the most important global problem of the near future.

One of the most important global problems is related to energy, as the use of natural energy resources by people is the main factor determining the level of modern civilization and the well-being of mankind. Now the largest source of raw materials in the energy sector is coal, and if its consumption stops at the current level, then coal reserves will be enough for about a thousand years. Even if humanity does not grow, but energy consumption per capita will grow at the same rate as in the past 100 years, then coal reserves will last only 100-150 years. An even closer crisis can be foreseen for other types of raw materials. For example, silver will last between 13-40 years, lead - 20-60 years, etc. (taking into account the use on a fivefold scale of new, not yet found natural reserves).

The depletion of raw materials of some important substances is already threatening our generation. And therefore, the solution of issues related to the technical and economic aspect of the problem "man and nature" should be considered urgent. But here the socio-political aspect immediately arises: due to the global nature, the solution of these issues is impossible on a national scale, it is real only with wide international cooperation based on the principles of peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems.

The next problem - environmental - arises as a result of imbalance in nature due to environmental pollution on the same global scale. The difficulty in solving this problem lies in the fact that the global scale of technical processes at the modern level of civilization began to change the environment around us — polluting the air, water and soil, destroying forests, changing natural landscapes — that the biological equilibrium that existed so far in nature can no longer be saved, and this begins to lead to the death of fauna and flora, which are necessary for the existence of people.

When, on a global scale, a shortage of materials and energy resources begins to occur and this begins to have a catastrophic effect on people's well-being, there will be no other choice for humanity to begin to reduce armaments, since the risk of death from aggression will be less real than the danger of death from a lack material resources. Moreover, since the solution of global problems should take place with close international cooperation, people will begin to feel that they live in a common apartment and that all of humanity has only one common enemy: this is an approaching global crisis, with which, having forgotten all the strife, we must begin fight together.

(by P. L. Kapitza)

Explanation.

The following consequences may be given:

1) lack of resources will lead to a reduction in armaments among countries;

2) the need to solve global problems of our time contributes to the development of international cooperation;

3) the need to find ways to solve the global problems of our time contributes to the development of science and technology.

Other positive effects may be mentioned.

Figure 13.1 - Transboundary pollution: non-cooperative solution

Cooperative solutiontransboundary pollution problems

believes the existence of compensation payments (“Side payments”). That-

these payments make it possible to redistribute gains to minimize total environmental costs.

As in the previous case, it is assumed that environmental protection in the recipient country only benefits this country. But while minimizing total costs of both countriesrequired to take into account that

both countries benefit from pollution prevention in the country -

issuer. Therefore, minimization of total costs requires equality of marginal environmental costs to the sum of marginal damages of both countries.

Thus, in the case of unilateral transboundary pollution and provided that the costs of negotiating can be neglected, a positive solution to this problem can be achieved: the recipient

compensates the issuer for environmental costs

(principle "the victim pays")

If transboundary pollution is bilateral or multilateral, each country runs the risk of being exposed to pollution without any compensation.

13.4. Global environmental problems and basic tools for solving them

Global environmental goods and systems are used as a public consumer good and for the disposal of waste by humanity as a whole. Typical examples are the depletion of the ozone layer, the greenhouse effect, and pollution of the oceans.

The peculiarity of global environmental benefits is that in relation to them the position of “free rider” is taken not by individual economic entities, but by countries and regions.

The problem of using the environment as a global public good is complicated by the following factors.

1. The population of different countries may have different preferences in relation to global public goods.

2. The severity of global environmental problems in individual countries may vary. For example, global warming and melting glaciers can lead to flooding of territories of countries such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh.

3. Even if preferences and severity of problems coincide in individual countries, the level of income varies significantly, which means that there will be

no economic valuation of global environmental benefits.

As in the case of transboundary pollution, significant

cooperative and non-cooperative solutions problems of global environmental pollution. In contrast to transboundary pollution in the case of global pollutiondamage to a particular country depends on environmental activities in other countrieswhile herenvironmental costs are individual.

At non-cooperative solutioneach country minimizes its costs, i.e. each country reduces the level of pollution to the point at which

its marginal gain becomes equal to marginal environmental costs.

With a cooperative solutionthe result is achieved through negotiation through compensation payments (“side payments”). The purpose of

local optimization isachievement of minimum total costs of both countries.

At the level of international environmental policy, the most common tools for solving global environmental problems are:

1. voluntary commitments of countries;

2. environmental rights market;

3. association of countries in international unions and organizations.

1. Voluntary obligations of countries may include obligations

multiply environmental pollution by a certain amount or good

voluntarily introduce an environmental tax (for example, on greenhouse gas emissions). Some countries due to differences in environmental costs

and cost of production due to environmental taxation may

be in adverse conditions, and they will refuse to comply with the agreement.

2. The market for pollution rights.One of the effective tools for solving global environmental problems is the market for environmental pollution rights. It allows environmental activities in countries with the highest level of efficiency and thereby minimize the total environmental costs. In addition, the market for environmental rights can be seen as an institutional mechanism for making a cooperative decision.

It is known that the first step in organizing the functioning of the market for environmental pollution rights is to determine the maximum permissible level of pollution. The next step is to choose the procedure for the initial distribution of rights (licenses). The distribution of rights is important for the continued stability of the market, since it depends on it whether a cooperative solution is found.

A variety of criteria have been proposed for the distribution of licenses. Firstly, the distribution may be based on the criterion of the total amount of pollution accumulated in the country throughout its history, which

the first is an indicator of its contribution to the pollution of global ecological systems. Countries with more pollution could receive fewer permits. However, in this case, the vast majority of permits would go to developing countries, while industrialized countries would

would lose.

Secondly, you can use the area of \u200b\u200bthe territory as a criterion, but in this case, countries with a low population density and a large territory like Russia would benefit.

Thirdly, you can focus on the size of GDP, and then the advantage will go to industrialized countries.

Fourth, permits per capita can be distributed, including taking into account potential population growth. In this case, a country such as China would receive a large share of permits in order to subsequently lease them to other countries. Many scientists believe that the optimal solution is to issue licenses per capita, taking into account a number of additional criteria.

Since ensuring optimal environmental quality on a global scale is a long-term problem, the longevity of such an institutional arrangement as the market for pollution rights is of great importance. At the same time, this system should be flexible enough so that new countries can join it as additional sources of emissions appear.

3. The union of countries in international environmental unions and organizations provides certain benefits:

countries are more interested in cooperation than in refusing it. For example, a country can save its environmental costs at the expense of other countries;

there are positive external effects from joint environmental activities that allow you to get additional winnings without  any costs;

member countries may impose sanctions for increasing environmental pollution by the country “free rider”.

Despite the fact that a cooperative solution brings more benefits to countries than a non-cooperative solution, each country has the opportunity take the position of "free rider".It is known that within the framework of the national economy, the problem of “free rider” can be avoided by means of universal ecological taxation. However, at the international level, this is not necessary.

possibly i.e. agreement should be self-fulfilling.

The desire to violate the terms of the agreement can be weakened by

sanctions. For example, if a country unilaterally curbs its environmental activities, so do other countries, thereby causing damage to the evading country. Such a threat could force countries to abandon the role of “free rider”.

In addition, the appearance of “free riders" can be prevented by considering the agreement as a repeating game with several periods or rounds. In this case, the gain received by the “free rider” in one of the rounds of the game can be reduced to zero by the costs that he will be forced to incur in the future in connection with the response actions of other players. If the country is concerned about its international reputation, then it will have an incentive to implement the agreement.

International environmental organizations and agreements:

For the first time, the problem of environmental protection in its modern sense was raised at the UN Stockholm Conference in 1972. As a result, a special body was created - the United Nations Environment Program -

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programs), which operates on a permanent

it is headquartered in Nairobi (Kenya). The main functions of UNEP are:

promotion of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection,

consultations on the implementation of national environmental policies;

guidance on coordination of environmental programs

constant monitoring of the environment in the world.

A number of other international organizations are involved in certain aspects of environmental protection:

UNESCO (United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization)

- explores the relationship between man and the environment;

FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations) - occupation-

it is a problem of agriculture, forestry and fisheries, the rational use of water and land resources, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, the development of new energy sources.

WHO (World Health Organization) promotes environmental safety, including providing safe drinking water and food, as well as waste management.

IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) - develops radiation safety standards, including the safe transportation and disposal of radioactive waste.

In addition, international environmental issues are addressed. regional commissionsoperating in various parts of the world, as well as many

numbered intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations.

Recently, such forms of international cooperation as conventions, multi- and bilateral agreements, programs, etc. have become widespread. Joining them means countries accepting certain commitments in the field of environmental protection.

Currently, the most important environmental agreements are:

Ramsar Convention on  Wetlands of international importance mainly as a habitat for waterfowl. 02.02.1971, Ramsar (Iran). Ratified by the Republic of Belarus:

Convention on the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 10/17/1972 Paris. Ratified by the Republic of Belarus: 12.10.88

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). 03.03.1973, Washington. Ratified by the Republic of Belarus: 12/20/94

Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution; 11/13/1979, Geneva (Switzerland). Ratified by the Republic of Be-

larisa: 05/14/80.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 06/23/1979 Bonn (Bonn Convention). Republic of Belarus has joined

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 03.22.1985, Vienna. Ratified by the Republic of Belarus: 05/23/1986;

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 09.16.1987, Montreal (Canada). Ratified by the Republic of Belarus:

Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context. 02/25/1991, Espoo, Finland. Ratified by the Republic of Belarus: 10.11.2005.

Convention on Biological Diversity. 06/05/1992, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). Ratified by the Republic of Belarus: 06/10/93.

Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses

and international lakes. 1992 Helsinki. Republic of Belarus has joined

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) 1992 New York. Ratified by the Republic of Belarus: 10.04.2000.

UN Conference on Environment and Development Declaration  Rio de Janeiro 1992, including Agenda 21, the concept of sustainable development, the Convention on Biological Diversity, etc. The Republic of Belarus was one of the first among the states of the world to develop the National Strategy for Sustainable Development (NSDS) in 1997.

UN Convention to Combat Desertification / Land Degradation. 06/17/1994 Paris. Signed by the Republic of Belarus: November 27, 2001

Aarhus Convention on access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters. 06/25/98, Aarhus (Denmark). Ratified by the Republic of Belarus: 12/14/99.

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biodiversity 05/15/2000, Cartagena. Ratified by the Republic of Belarus:

The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, also known as Rio + 20, was held  June 20-22, 2012, 20 years after the adoption of the "Rio Declaration" (Rio De Janeiro Declaration on Environment and Development 1992) at the Earth Summit.

Problems that Rio + 20 will do

Methods to address many of the sustainable development challenges, including the challenges associated with urban development, energy, water, food and ecosystems, are known. At Rio + 20, countries tried to find ways to implement them through the following measures:

Transitioning to a greener economy with a focus on poverty eradication.

Protecting the oceans from fishing, the destruction of marine ecosystems and the negative impacts of climate change.

Rational arrangement of cities and the creation of more favorable living conditions in them.

The wider use of renewable energy sources, which will significantly reduce carbon emissions and the scale of environmental pollution indoors and outdoors, while contributing to economic growth.

Better forest management offers a number of benefits - halving deforestation by 2030 will avoid the damage caused by climate change from greenhouse gas emissions, estimated at $ 3.7 trillion, even if we ignore the cost of jobs and income , biodiversity, clean water and medicines provided by forests.

Improving conservation and management of water resources to promote development and protect against desertification.

Aarhus Convention.

The main provision of the convention is the establishment of interaction between the public and state bodies in a democratic context.

The Aarhus Convention provides citizens with certain rights and imposes certain obligations on state bodies in the field of ensuring access to environmental information and public participation in making environmentally significant decisions. The Convention also provides public access to justice in environmental matters. These provisions constitute the so-called three “postulates” of the Aarhus Convention.

Spicy food is a long-standing invention of mankind that has evolved over the years and finds new and new fans. We decided to help you understand the world of hot sauces and understand what to eat.

How has acuity become a scientific value?

In 1920, the American chemist Wilbur Scoville proposed the Organovoleptic Test (Scoville Organoleptic Test), which he developed, in which the stiffness of a pepper sample is evaluated in special units - Scoville Heat Units (SHU).

This test was aimed at measuring the level of capsaicin - the element that is directly responsible for the burning taste of red pepper. In black pepper, another component is responsible for the severity - piperine. Generally pure capsaicin is a colorless crystalline powder that is soluble in alcohol and insoluble in cold water. It can be used in medicine (various warming ointments, tinctures, plasters), as well as in the production of weapons for self-defense (gas cartridges, pistols). One kilogram of pure capsaicin costs about $ 5,000.

Scientists have found that capsaicin, which is responsible for the acute taste and irritating effect of hot pepper, causes massive death of malignant cells due to the effect on mitochondria - organelles that provide cells with energy.

In its pure form, it can be very dangerous for humans. Just one drop placed on a person’s hand causes acute pain and burns. When ingested, even a fatal outcome is possible, however, in order to get a lethal dose from ordinary pepper, you have to eat a couple of kilograms.

Scoville and his followers experimentally obtained the severity values \u200b\u200bfor the main varieties of pepper and as a result, the Scovilla table now looks like this:

Main player

The McIlhenny Tabasco series of sauces began in 1868 in Louisiana. To date, Tabasco has five varieties, varying in taste and pungency.

The lightest (600-1,200 scoville) of the sauces presented is Tabasco Green Pepper Sauce, or in the common people Tabasco Jalapeno (pronounced "jalapieno"). It has a green color, slightly sour taste and consists of vinegar, jalapeno pepper, water, salt, corn starch and xanthan gum preservative, which, unfortunately, has to be added to this sauce due to the inability of jalapeno pepper to be stored for a long time. The range of applications of this sauce is wide enough, but it is especially good with fish, as it has both spiciness and acidity necessary for fish. In addition, the sauce is good for various salads.

The next fortress is Tabasco Garlic Pepper Sauce (1200-1800 scoville), also called garlic. There is no preservative in this sauce, but there is vinegar, water, salt and a mixture of three red peppers of the following varieties: soft cayenne, Tabasco pepper and soft red jalapeno. Garlic is also present in this sauce, although its taste is not very pronounced. The best dish for this sauce is pizza. Also, the sauce is well suited for soups and meat.

The sauce was the result of numerous and lengthy experiments by Edmund Macailenney, the owner of the small Avery Island estate on salt mines in Louisiana. To prepare his sauce, Edmund Macailenni used a special kind of red pepper - Tabasco, salt from a local mine and high quality vinegar. Among the main advantages of this sauce are versatility in use, lack of calories and fat, low sodium content, use in the manufacture of only natural ingredients.

Tabasco Pepper Sauce - the most famous and historically the first of all tobacco sauces, it was with him that the history of Tabasco began. The strength of this sauce is 2500-5000 scoville and many consider this sauce the most spicy in the world. This sauce consists only of distilled vinegar, pepper and salt. This sauce, like cognac or whiskey, is aged in oak barrels. The main feature of this person’s sauce is its pungency, but whoever is accustomed to pungency will catch in the sauce, first of all, vinegar, and then the pungency of red pepper.

The sharpest of sauces is Tabasco Habanero Sauce (pronounced "Abanero", without the letter "X") with a strength of 5000-7000 scoville, which is 10 times higher than the strength of Tabasco Green! In addition to exorbitant spiciness, this sauce also has a complex recipe that takes its roots from Jamaican cuisine. Tabasco Habanero consists of: vinegar, Abanero pepper (one of the sharpest varieties in the world), cane sugar, regular Tabasco sauce, salt, mango pulp, tamarind, banana, papaya, tomatoes, dried onions, garlic, spices and aged in oak barrels Tabasco Peppers.Tabasco Habanero is just perfect for drinking vodka (no pepper can compare with a drop of habanero in a glass) and is designed to serve as a seasoning for exotic cuisines like African, Caribbean and Mexican.

Industry

The hot sauce industry has countless sauces of various degrees of severity. As you know, real chili burns twice, and lovers of spicy from North America sometimes go on records. For example, in Black Death sauce, there’s about 550,000 Scoville points! For comparison: in the sharpest types of Tabasco, this figure does not exceed 5,000. The main ingredient is habaniero, which burns the tongue from the first drop, and a few are enough to thoroughly pepper a whole pot of soup.