Vygotsky views in a blind child. Blind child. Chronology of the most important events of life

Musical and auditory views develops emotional responsiveness to music.

Playing on musical instruments, children begin to get acquainted with the sound of various tools and recognize them in a timbral color. The retrying of rhythm-morforms under the sound of the song activates the formation of musical hearing and the sense of metrolamic, and the rhythm is formed much more active.

Thus, a complex of artistic activities used in the lessons of the folk ensemble, actively

watching children. Singing, musical movement and game on elementary tools are interested in children with their democratic and brightness, colorfulness. The formation of musical abilities is not evenly, each type of activity directly activates one of the types of musicality and only the musical memory is formed in the process of performing each activity. In addition to the pedagogical process, a complex of activities, we purposefully activate the formation of all the musical abilities of younger students.

Notes

1. Psychological Dictionary / Ed. N.F. Dobrynina. S.E. Soviet. - Magadan, 1965. - 293 p.

2. Heat, B. M. Psychology of musical abilities / B.M. Heat. - M.: Publisher of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR. 1938. - 335 p.

efectological concept a. from. Vygotsky as a scientific basis of correctional and educational activities of the children's library

E. O. Matveyeva

Moscow State University of Culture and Arts

The article is devoted to the analysis of the defectological concept of L.S. Vygotsky, which is considered as a scientific basis for the correctional work of the children's library. The article presents the main directions of socio-cultural rehabilitation of young readers, shows the relevance of the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky at the beginning of the XXI century.

Keywords: scientific concept hp Vygotsky, children's reading, children's library, disabled child, social rehabilitation.

This article analyzes the concept of speech pathology LS .Vygotsky, which is regarded as a scientific basis for correction of children "s library. The article presents the main directions of socio-cultural rehabilitation of young readers, the urgency of the ideas LS Vygotsky in The Early Twenty-First Century. Key Words: Scientific Concept of Ls Vygotsky, Children Reading, Children "S Library, a child with a Disability, and Social Rehabilitation.

Scientific heritage of an outstanding psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (18961934), in many ways the identified vector of the development of humanitarian knowledge last century, and today it continues to have a noticeable impact on research in the field of not only psychology itself, but also pedagogy, defectology, aesthetics, art historics, theory and methods of corrective-educational work with the younger generation. As MG rightly noted. Yaroshevsky: "Now Vygotsky - a generally accepted classic of Russian psychology. According to such an indicator, as a citation index, he far surpassed our psychologists both in his homeland and abroad. The resonance of his ideas in many areas of knowledge - cultural studies, philosophy, defectology, art historian, psychiatry, semiotics, pedagogy, ethnography. In psychology, there was no researcher equal to him by the manifold of interests and developed topics "(2, p. 23). It is safe to say: cultural and historical theory L.S. Vygotsky, who was one of the staged moments in the formation of a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe development of the psyche and socialization of a person, in other words, the world of man and a person in the world, becoming the conceptual basis for the study of the child's psychology, served as the starting point of hundreds of interdisciplinary research, integrating psychological knowledge in the practice of morally The aesthetic education of the younger generation, in the practice of manual reading, as well as the method of socio-cultural rehabilitation of young readers with disabilities of psychophysiological development of the surrounding reality. The last aspect of the actualization of the scientific heritage of L.S. Vygotsky seems to be particularly important to us, since the beginning of the new century is noted by the close interest of society to the problem of social well-being of our compatriots, whose life path is burdened by disabilities. Today, the state policy of the Russian Federation is focused on

the development of various areas of rehabilitation work, including the organization of correctional and educational activities of the Children's Library: only in the capital more than forty libraries, one way or another is represented by the service of disabled readers, they received a new status of centers of socio-cultural rehabilitation of people with various health impairments (blind, Deaf, with disabilities of the musculoskeletal system or intellectual sphere). However, despite the obvious social significance and the unconditional demand of this aspect of library service, the development of practicing work with special readers is characterized by substantial difficulties, the main of which is the psychological unpreparedness of librarians to communicate with a special group of users, and often an overlookingness to them. In the professional press, at conferences and meetings dedicated to library innovation, the need to improve the correctional work in the library, integration into managing reading of effective psychological techniques created by defectologists. This is particularly significant for the rehabilitation of young, for the admission of the younger generation to the works of the word art, to educate the needs and ability of creative reading. The scientific basis of the correctional work of the Children's Library, in our opinion, should be the defectological concept of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, since its cornerstone is a statement of the need for social compensation for an organic defect, achieved primarily in the process of cultural development of the child. In particular, in 1929, in the article "The Main Problems of Modern Defectology", the scientist entered into an acute controversy with his compatriots and foreign colleagues who developed "the idea of \u200b\u200bdeflectivity as a purely quantitative limitation of development", put the equality sign

between the organic defect and the possibility of social development of the personality. In counterweight opponents hp Vygotsky claimed: "... the child, the development of which is complicated by a defect, is not simply less developed than its normal peers, a child, but otherwise developed" (1, p. 24).

The originality of the formation of a special child led a scientist for the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to create a defect compensation technique: "A positive originality of a defective child is created primarily not by the fact that it falls out those or other functions observed in normal, but the fact that the functions of functions cause new Education, representing a person's reaction to a defect in their unity, compensation in the development process. If a blind or deaf child achieves in the development of the same as normal, then children with defect reaches this in a different way, on a different way. The key to the peculiarity gives the law to transform the minus defect in plus compensation, "Lev Semenovich emphasized (1, p. 30).

Thus, the scientist argued that the defect represents not only a significant drawback (namely, the defects of child development were perceived before the conceptual works of Vygotsky), but also is an incentive of finding bypass development pathways. This position of the scientific heritage of Vygotsky is the most significant for understanding the nature of the socio-cultural rehabilitation of a special child in the library, awareness of its importance and for the reader itself, and for society as a whole.

For example, a few decades ago, it was not about the possibility of a socio-cultural rehabilitation of readers, studying in specific conditions of the Correctional educational institution of the eighth species (auxiliary school), since a priori was believed that the abilities of such children to understand the works of art of the word are extremely low, and the desire to The creative interpretation of the artistic text they have almost completely absent. Against the background of a fairly deep study of the problem of library

the maintenance of the blind and weak and visually impaired, which began in our country in the pre-revolutionary period, achievements in the field of leadership reading a child with limited intellectual possibilities until the 1990s last centuries were very modest: articles about the formation of a culture of reading auxiliary school students only occasionally appeared in the journal " Defectology ", we are talking about the possibility of managing their reading in the mass library practically did not behave. Changing the sociocultural situation that increased public interest in the life of special children, finally, the development of defectological libraries can be viewed as the prerequisites for the creation of a methodology for the correction reading and a pedagogical system of the child's library service with disabilities of intellectual development of the surrounding reality.

Thesis hp Vygotsky about the need for pedagogical search for other ways to develop a starting point for the modification of many traditional forms of reading to read, used also when working with students of the correctional school of the eighth species, to create new specific methods for the introduction of such children to read and book culture. Today, the practice of the work of children's libraries of our country is testified: when the psychological features of readers, accounting for their social interests, the competent modification of the methods of liberty, the use of techniques created by domestic and foreign flaws, is quite possible socially compensation of a defect in creative activities, when a child reaches significant success not only In understanding the work of the art of the word, but also in social cooperation with others.

Nodal moment of the defectological concept of HP Vygotsky is the provision on the social consequences of the defect; preventing a full-fledged integer by a child of culture: "... the effect of the defect always turns out to be

the child does not feel directly reflected in his defect directly. It perceives the difficulties that result from the defect. The direct consequence of the defect is to reduce the social position of the child: the defect is implemented as social dislocation. All connections with people, all moments that determine the place of a person in a social environment, his role and fate as a participant in life, all the functions of public being are rebuilt, "LS emphasized Vygotsky (1, p. 32).

Developing this thesis, trying to creatively apply it to the realities of the modern reading guide, we can say: the main task of the sociocultural rehabilitation of readers of the children's library is that with the help of special complex techniques, organically combine traditional approaches to the formation of book culture with methods borrowed from psychotherapy Both defectology, to achieve the positive social well-being of children, teach them an optimistic look at life and raise their desire to self-affirmation in socially acceptable activities.

Next, we list the directions of correctional and educational activities of libraries, which, in our opinion, mostly contribute to the correction of "social dislocation", that is, overcoming the social consequences of the defect. These include:

The use of manuals in the practice of reading art and talekotherapy, to the greatest degree of contributing to psychological decentration and overcoming cognitive egocentrism, allowing the child to play various roles, and therefore feel the participant of different situations, thus acquiring so necessary life experience;

Encouraging the independent literary creativity of readers, allowing to develop imagination, thinking, memory of children who contribute to overcoming the stereotypes of thinking;

Active promotion of game forms of manual reading, game interpretation of artistic text: holding literary quizzes, speculation of plots, rhythm and rhyme games;

Cooperation of the librarian with psychologists, defectologists, social teachers, the creation of comprehensive sociocultural rehabilitation programs, which is based on psychological and pedagogical, cultural and defectological approaches to the study of the intellectual and social formation of a special child;

Collaboration with the nearest social environment of readers, primarily with parents, attracting them to the mass work of the library (participation of parents in quiz, staging, organization of family reading clubs, competitions "Mom, Dad, I am the most reading family");

Active use in the practice of manual reading psychotherapeutic techniques, helping to overcome stressful state, remove excessive tensions and aggression, create confidence in readers to peace and the desire to cooperate with others;

The use of books toys that facilitate the acquisition of children with certain problems of perception of the world (for example, visually impaired, with serious intellectual disorders) to book culture;

Integration of a special child into the society of the peers on jointly interesting studies to all readers.

The last aspect of the correctional and educational activities of the Children's Library seems to us particularly important. Almost a hundred years ago, Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, arguing about the development and socialization of a special child, noticed with bitterness: "Our special school instead of bringing a child from an isolated world, usually develops skills in this child who lead it to even greater isolation and enhance His separatism. Because of these shortcomings, the general education of the child is not only paralyzed, but its special accounting of

gda is reduced almost no "(1, p. 82).

L.S. Vygotsky in this case meant the features of the socialization of the deaf-and-dumb child, but the said scientists can be attributed to the socio-psychological formation and other children whose life is burdened by pickers of the psyche or intellect. In particular, research conducted by the Moscow State University of Culture and Arts in the Correction Schools of the capital, testify: most of children suffering from mental delay and intellectual failure, even subject to a methodically competently organized educational process without adults to integrate into the society of healthy peers. Unfortunately, few pupils of the eighth-like correctional school (about 2%) are recorded in children's libraries, visits mugs, studios, leisure centers. This sad fact is due not only to the intellectual failure of children, but also the negative experience of their communication with society, which has been formed during the preschool childhood. Consequently, the task of library pedagogy is to create prerequisites for psychologically productive interaction of readers with different levels of development of intellect and various health status. Expanding the circle of social interaction of readers with disabilities, enriching their life experience, this communication helps and healthy children, helps to overcome egoism, teaches goodness, mercy, altruism, compassion. In the context of scientific ideas expressed by LS Vygotsky, quite logical looks not only the practice of inclusive education, but also the inclusive reading manual, when the mass work of the library unites readers with different health status, in different ways perceiving the world around (for example, visually impaired and sighting, which have normal and slow intellectual development). In particular, from the end of the past century, such programs

we are developed in the Russian State Children's Library and are successfully implemented in the practice of managing reading.

Considering the processes of training and education, L.S. Vygotsky stressed that the efforts of the teacher, and therefore the children's librarian should be focused on tomorrow's day, the intellectual and social potential of the child, they should rely on his positive perspective, even if the chances of her are small. In the preface to the book of the famous pre-revolutionary defectologist E.K. Gracheva, who dedicated life to the upbringing of deep mentally retarded children, Lev Semenovich emphasized the negative impact of pessimistic stereotypes for the future of pupils of correctional educational institutions: under the influence of a pessimistic view on deep-backward children, it is usually a decrease in requirements, a deliberate narrowing, cutting of borders and limits that puts themselves Education of these children. "Under the influence of such a look, naturally, minimalistic trends arise, the desire to reduce educational tasks towards these children to a possible minimum, limit the most necessary. This view is theoretically and practically incorrect, and the central meaning of the book E.K. Gracheva ... In the fact that she is an eloquent language of facts refutes this pessimistic minimalistic theory and puts forward the idea of \u200b\u200bpedagogical optimism towards deep children's backward children "(1, p. 312).

Nowadays, when not all experts unequivocally positively relate to the idea of \u200b\u200bintegrating a deeply mentally retarded child into the world of book culture, it is necessary to turn to E.G. experience Rracheva, to which L.S. Vygotsky. It is known that in schools under the leadership of Catherine Konstantinovna, libraries, teachers and librarians were organized by the reading diaries, recorded quantitative and qualitative indicators of readership, read children

out loud, there were conversations about favorite books. Day after day, step by step, thoughtfully, psychologically literately brought up in their pets love for the book, interest in the artistic word. Of course, such work requires significant pedagogical effort and an individual approach to each reader, but it is it that creates the necessary foundation for the in-territorization by a particular child of the achievements of world culture, and therefore, for successful socio-cultural rehabilitation. In all the defectological works of L.S. Vygotsky "Red Thread" is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need for pedagogical efforts to compensate for the defect. So, in the article "Development of a difficult child and his study" he emphasized: "The compensation process caused by a defect may have a different outcome, which depends on the severity of the defect itself, the compensatory fund ... and, finally, from education, that is, from. .. Conscious direction attached to this process. If compensation fails, then we usually have a deeply painful, sharply abnormal child. If compensation succeeds, it can lead to the development of compensating functions, to identifying the abilities "(1, p. 263). This is the situation of the scientific concept of L.S. Vygotsky became the cornerstone of world defectology, it determines today and the strategy of the correctional and educational work of domestic children's libraries, constantly expanding the range of leadership opportunities to read a special child. For example, in our time, the library's rehabilitation tasks include the creation of special publications, helping the maximum reporting information to readers with disabilities. Of particular importance is the direction of socio-cultural rehabilitation for blind and visually impaired readers, as well as for children with a complex structure of the defect, when intellectual failure is combined with poor eyesight. To meet the information needs of these children, the libraries acquire technical

funds: Computers, printers, special Typhlother to read "speaking" books.

Today, library funds are replenished with unique publications - tactile needlework books-toys that are a means of rehabilitation of children. Assistance in the manufacture of toy books are provided by the centers of technical creativity, technical circles, various clubs and the associations of technical orientation.

The history of the development of social relations shows that the life of a person with disabilities begins to change for the better not only after the adoption of legislative acts regulating various aspects of the legal status of persons with disabilities, and not only in connection with the development of a defectological theory and methods of socio-cultural rehabilitation, but above all with a change Psychological climate, when the change of social philosophy, who shared society for a full-fledged majority and an infallible minority, comes to the idea of \u200b\u200bsociety as a community, which unites people with different features and problems, but at the same time equally worthy of attention, respect, decent life, the realization of the right to Promotion to the achievements of world culture and obtaining information. It is not by chance that a number of modern programs for sociocultural rehabilitation that affect the practice of work libraries are carried out under the motto "Look at me as equal!"

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe dependence of the social well-being of a person with disabilities from the attitude towards him of others was expressed by L.S. Vygotsky. In particular, in the article "The questions of the upbringing of blind, deaf-and-dumb and mentally retarded children" he wrote: "Imagine yourself that in some country due to the special conditions, defective children would represented an exceptional value, some special mission would have fallen out to their share or Social role. It is difficult to imagine it, but it is quite possible: because sometime blind

born in born in order to be a judge, a sage, a primeher ... It would be clear that the blindness would mean a completely different social destiny for a person and from the defect would be worthy of "(1, p. 128). All of the above allows you to say: the rehabilitation work of Russian libraries should be aimed at optimizing the social well-being readers with

disabled features, because they come to the library not only for the book, but they are looking for friendly support there, hope for spiritual heat, seek to find like-minded people. This direction of library work is significantly and for society, as it contributes to humanization of social sentiment, approves the ideals of Altruism.

Notes

1. Vygotsky, L. S. Basics of Defectology / L.S. Vygotsky. - St. Petersburg., 2003. - 656 p.

2. Yaroshevsky, M. G. L. Vygotsky: In search of a new psychology / MG Yaroshevsky. - St. Petersburg., 1993. - 300 p.

Economic activity as

the most important condition for the formation of schoolchildren's economic culture

A. Sh. Dosbenbetova

South Kazakhstan State University. M. Auzova (Kazakhstan)

The article is devoted to the actual problem of the modern education system - the formation of students' economic culture. Economic activity is considered not only as an important means of forming economic culture, but also as a condition that ensures integration of training, science and production. This article provides examples from the experience of the Summary School of South Kazakhstan region on the organization of the school mini enterprise.

Keywords: Economic Culture, Economic Education, Economic Education, Education, Ethnironmental Features, Economic Activities. The paper is devoted to the actual problem of modern education system - the schoolchildren "s economical culture formation The economical activity is considered not only as an important mean of economical culture formation, but also as the condition that provides integration of education, science and. Manufacture. Some Experience of Comprehensive Schools Experience On Organization of Mini Manufacture at School in South Kazakhstan Here.

Key Word: Economical Culture, Economical Education, Economical Upbringing, Content of Education, Ethnoregional Features, Economical Activity.

"Education reform is one of the most important tools to ensure the real competitiveness of Kazakhstan. We need a modern education system corresponding to the eco

nomic and public modernization, "says the message of Kazakhstan's President" Kazakhstan on the threshold of a new jerk forward in his development "(3).

Deep socio-economic

L. S. Vygotsky

Blind baby

They (blind. - L. V.) develop such features that we cannot see in vain, and it must be assumed that in case of exclusive communication of the blind with the blind, without any intercourse, there could be a special breed of people,
K. Burkelen.*

If you leave in particular and neglect the details aside, you can imagine the development of scientific views on the psychology of the blind in the form of a single line, which comes from deep antiquity to the present day, then being lost in the darkness of false ideas, then appearing again with each new conquest of science. As a magnetic arrow indicates to the north, this line indicates the truth and allows you to estimate any historical error degree of its deviation from this way the angle of curvature of the main line. ______________________ * K. Burklen, 1924. P. 3. ______________________ In essence, the science of a blind person, since she went to the truth, all comes down to the deployment of one central idea, which mankind thousands of millennia is trying to master, because it is not only a blind idea, but And in general, about the psychological nature of man. In the psychology of the blind, as in every knowledge, you can be mistaken in different ways, but to go to the truth only one way. This idea is reduced to the fact that blindness is not only no view (defect of a separate organ); It causes a deepest restructuring of all the forces of the body and personality, blindness, creating a new, special warehouse of the personality, causes new forces to life, changes the normal directions of functions, creatively and organically re-poses and forms a person's psyche. Consequently, blindness is not only a defect, minus, weakness, but in some sense the source of the identification of abilities, plus, force (oddly enough and it looks like a paradox!). This idea survived the three main stages, from the comparisons of which it becomes a clear direction, the trend of its development. The first era can be indicated as a mystical, the second is naive-biological and third, modern - scientific or social and psychological.

The first era covers antiquity, the Middle Ages and the most significant part of the new story. Until now, the remnants of this era are visible in folk glances on the blind, in the legends, fairy tales, proverbs. In blindness, they were seen primarily a huge misfortune, which was treated with superstitious fear and respect. Along with attitudes towards blind as a helpless, defenseless and abandoned creature, the general conviction arises in the fact that the blind are developing the highest mystical forces of the soul that they are available spiritual knowledge and vision instead of the lost physical vision. Until now, many people talk about the desire of blind to the spiritual light: apparently, the share of truth is concluded, although distorted by fear and lack of understanding of the religious-thinking mind. The keepers of folk wisdom, singers, well-minders of the future, according to legend, were often blind. Homer was a blind man. About Democritus they say that he himself blinded himself to surrender to completely philosophy. If it is incorrect, then in any case it is significant: the possibility of such a legend, which did not seem ridiculous to anyone, testifies to such views on the blindness, according to which the philosophical gift may increase with loss of vision. It is curious that the Talmud, which equates the blind, lepers and childless to the dead, speaking of the blind, consumes the eufhemistic expression "man with abundance of light." The German folk sayings and the sayings of traditional wisdom keep tracks of the same glance: "The blind wants to see everything" or "Solomon found at the blind wisdom, because they do not take a step, without examining the soil on which they step." O. Vanechek (O. Wanecek, 1919) In a study on the blind in Saga, a fairy tale and legend showed that the folk art is inherent in the blind sight as a person with an awakened internal vision, gifted by spiritual knowledge, alien to other people. Christianity, which brought with him the revaluation of values, in essence only changed the moral content of this idea, but left unchanged the very essence. "Latest here", to which, of course, treated and blind, was promised to become "first there." In the Middle Ages, it was the most important dogma of the philosophy of blindness, in which, as in any deprivation, suffering, saw spiritual value; The church pale was given to the undivided ownership of the blind. It marked at the same time and a benchmark in earthly life, and proximity to God. In the weak body, they talked then, lives a high spirit. Again in blindness, some kind of mystical second side opened, some kind of spiritual value, some positive meaning. Mystical should be called this stage in the development of psychology of the blind not only due to the fact that it was painted with religious ideas and beliefs, not only because the blind in every way closer to God: visible, but not seeing - to a seeing, but invisible how They spoke Jewish wise men. In essence, the ability that was attributed to the blind were considered the supersatural forces of the soul, their connection with blindness seemed mysterious, wonderful, incomprehensible. These views arose not from experience, not from the testimony of the blind themselves about themselves, not from scientific research of the blind and its public role, but from the teachings about the spirit and body and faith in the disembodied spirit. And yet, although the story of Dotla destroyed, and the science to the end exposed the inconsistency of this philosophy, a particle of truth was hidden in its deepest foundations.

Only the Epoch of Enlightenment (XVIII century) opened a new era in understanding blindness. A science was put in place of mystics, the place of prejudice is experience and study. The greatest historical meaning of this era for the problem under consideration is that a new understanding of psychology has created (as a direct consequence) education and education of the blind, bringing them to social life and opening access to culture. In theoretical plan, a new understanding was expressed in the teaching on the vicariate of the senses. According to this view, the loss of one of the functions of perception, the lack of one body is compensated by the increased functioning and development of other organs. As in the absence or illness of one of the paired organs - for example, the kidney or light, another, the healthy organ compensatory develops, increases and popsies the scene, taking on part of its functions, and the defect of view causes an increased development of hearing, tanging and other remaining feelings. Created whole legends about the excess sharpness of tanging at the blind; They talked about the wisdom of the good nature, which by one hand selects, and the other gives back the polar and cares about his creatures; They believed that any blind, already thanks to one fact, there is a blind musician, that is, a person gifted with an increased and exceptional hearing; Opened a new, special, inaccessible sixth feeling at the blind. The basis of all these legends was true observations and facts from the life of the blind, but falsely interpreted and therefore distorted beyond recognition. K. Burkelen collected the opinions of various authors (X. A. Friche, L. Bachko, Stuche, X. V. Rothermund, I. V. Klein, etc.), which in various forms developed this idea (K. Burklen, 1924) . However, studies very soon found the inconsistency of such a theory. They pointed out as an unspokenly established fact that there are no dry-tunes of the functions of touch and hearing; that, on the contrary, very often these functions are in the blind are developed at least as in the silent; Finally, where we meet with an increased compared to the normal function of touch, this phenomenon turns out to be secondary, dependent, derivative, rather due to development than its cause. The specified phenomenon arises not from direct physiological compensation of the defect of view (as an increase in the kidneys), but a very complex and indirectly in common social and psychological compensation, which does not replace the resulting function and not standing in place of the missing body. Therefore, there can be no speech about what the vicariate of the senses. Rightly noted Luzardi, that the finger will never teach the blind to really see. E. Binder, after Appia, showed that the functions of the senses are not transferred from one body to another and that the expression "vicar of feelings", i.e. The replacement of the senses is incorrectly used in physiology. The studies of Fesbach, published in the physiological archive of E. Pfluger, who have shown its inconsistency, had crucial importance for refuting this dogma. The dispute was allowed experimental psychology. She pointed out the way to properly understand the facts that were based on this theory. E. Meiman challenged the position of Fisbach that with a defect of one feeling all feelings suffer. He argued that in practice there is a kind of replacement of perception functions (E. Meumann, 1911). V. Wondt concluded that the replacement in the field of physiological functions is a special case of exercise and fixtures. Therefore, the substitution should be understood not in the sense of direct taking on themselves by other organs of the physiological functions of the eye, but the difficult restructuring of all mental activities caused by a violation of the most important function and aimed at the disposal of the Association, attention to the creation and development of a new type of equilibrium of the organism instead of violated. But if such a naive-biological concept and turned out to be incorrect and had to give up his place another theory, yet she made a huge step forward along the way to the conquest of the scientific truth about blindness. She for the first time with the measure of scientific observation and with the criterion of experience came to the fact that the blindness is not only a defect, only insufficiency, but also causes new forces to life and activities, new features and performs some creative-creative organic work, although this Theory and could not specify what exactly such work is. How much is huge and great the practical importance of such a step towards the truth, one can judge by the fact that this era created the education and formation of the blind. One point of Braille did for the blind more than thousands of benefactors; The ability to read and write was more important than the "sixth sense" and the sophistication of tanging and hearing. At the monument of V. Gaiui, the founder of the formation of the blind, written words addressed to the blind child: "You will find light in education and in labor." In knowledge and work I saw the traffic permission of the tragedy of blindness and indicated this path to which we go now. The Epoch of the traffic police gave the blind education; Our era should give them difficulty.

The science of the new time came closer to mastering the truth about the psychology of the blind man. School of Vienna Psychiatrist A. Adler, developing a method of individual psychology, i.e. The social psychology of the individual, pointed to the meaning and psychological role of an organic defect in the development and formation of personality. If any organ due to morphological or functional inferiority does not cope completely with its work, then the central nervous system and the mental apparatus assume the task of compensating for the difficult functioning of the organ. They are created over a low-value organ or a mental superstructure function, seeking to provide the body in a weak and threatened paragraph. In contact with the external environment, a conflict arises caused by the inconsistency of an insufficient organ or a function with their tasks, which leads to an increased possibility of the disease and mortality. This conflict creates both increased opportunities and stimuli to oversepension. The defect becomes thus the initial point and the main driving force of the psychic development of the personality. If the struggle ends for the body of the victory, then it will not only cope with the defective difficulties, but also rises in its development to the highest level, creating gifts from defectivity, from a defect - ability, from weakness - force, from low-value - superstibility . So, the blind from the birth of N. Suunderson made up a textbook of geometry (A. adler, 1927). What huge tension should have achieved psychic forces and a tendency to overthone, caused by a defect in view, so that it can not only cope with the spatial limitations that blindness entails, but also to master the space in higher forms available to humanity only in scientific Thinking, in geometric constructions. Where we have much lower degrees of this process, the main law remains the same. It is curious that in the schools of painting Adler found 70% of students with anomalies of vision and as many students with speech defects in dramatic art schools (A. adler. In the book: Heilen und Bilder, 1914. P. 21). The calling for painting, the ability to her rose from eye defects, artistic gifts - from overcomed by the spectacles of the speech apparatus. However, the lucky outcome is not at all the only or even most frequent result of the struggle for overcoming the defect. It would be naive to think that any disease is invariably ends safely that each defect is happily turns into talent. Any struggle has two outcome. The second outcome is the failure of the ultriction, the complete victory of the sense of weakness, the asociality of the behavior, the creation of protective positions from its weakness, turning it into weapons, the fictitious purpose of existence, in essence, the madness, the impossibility of the normal mental life of the personality is escape to the disease, neurosis. Between these two poles there is a huge and inexhaustible variety of various degrees of good luck and failure, giftedness and neurosis - from the minimum to maximum. The existence of extreme points indicates the limits of the phenomenon itself and gives the extreme expression of its essence and nature. The blindness creates difficulties when entering a blind child to life. Conflict flashes along this line. In fact, the defect is implemented as social dislocation. The blindness puts its carrier to a certain and difficult social position. A sense of low value, uncertainty and weakness arise as a result of assessing the blind position. As the reaction of the mental apparatus, trends towards overspending are developing. They are aimed at the formation of a socially full-fledged personality, to conquer the position in public life. They are aimed at overcoming the conflict and, therefore, do not develop the touch, hearing, etc., and capture the entire person without a residue, starting from the most inner core; They seek not to replace sight, but to overcome and overcompensate social conflict, psychological instability as a result of a physical defect. This is the essence of a new look. Previously thought that a blind child had all his life and all the development would go along the line of his blindness. The new law says they will go against this line. The one who wants to comprehend the psychology of the Personality of the blind directly from the fact of blindness, as directly determined by this fact, will understand it as incorrectly as the one who in the vaccination of the Shaw will only see the disease. True, the vaccination of smallpox is the vaccination of the disease, but in essence it is the grafting of the superpower. In the light of this law, everyone has an explanation of all private psychological observations on the blind in their attitude towards leutlinescence, to a single life plan, to the ultimate goal, to the "fifth act", as Adler is expressed. Not due to the past, and with a focus on the future, individual psychological phenomena and processes should be understood. For a complete understanding of all the features of the blind, we must open the tendencies embedded in his psychology, embryos of the future. In essence, these are general requirements of dialectical thinking in science: for full lighting of some phenomenon, it is necessary to consider it in connection with his past and future. This is the prospect of the future introduces Adler to psychology.

Psychologists have long noted the fact that blindness is blind at all is not experiencing, contrary to a walking opinion, as if he constantly feels immersed in the darkness. According to an excellent expression A.V. Birileva, highly educated blind, does not see the blind light not as a moan with knit eyes. The blind also does not see the light, as a siny does not see him with his hand, i.e. He does not feel and does not feel directly what is deprived of sight. "I could not feel my physical drawback directly," testifies A.M. Shcherbina (1916. p. 10). The basis of the psyche of the blind is not the "instinctive organic attraction to the light", not the desire to "free from the gloomy curtain", as Pictured Her V.G. Korolenko in the famous one to lead the "blind musician". The ability to see light for the blind is practical and pragmatic, and not instinctively organic, i.e. Blind only indirectly, reflected, only in social consensus it feels its defect. It would be a naive mistake of a moan man to believe that we will find in the psyche of the blind blindness or its mental shadow, projection, mapping; There is nothing in his psyche, except for tendency to overcome blindness (aspirations for supercompensation) attempts to conquer the social position. Almost all researchers converge, for example, in the fact that at the blind, we meet in general higher than the greater, the development of memory. The last comparative study of E. Krechmer (1928) has shown that the blind has better verbal, mechanical and rational memory. A. Petzeld cites the same fact, a number of studies (A. Petzeld, 1925). The Burkelin gathered the views of many authors coinciding in the same - in the approval of the special force of development in the blind memory, which is usually the memory of Emirates (K. Burk Len, 1924). Adler would ask: for which the blind strong memory is developed, i.e. what is due to this processing what functions in the behavior of the personality is fulfilling what need is? It would be more correct to say that the blind has a tendency towards increased memory development; Develop: whether it actually is very high - it depends on many difficult circumstances. The tendency set up with a non-interest in the psyche of the blind, becomes perfectly explained in the compensation. To conquer a position in public life, a blind person is forced to develop all its compensating functions. PA to mive in the blind is developing under pressure trends towards compensation of the lowestness created by blindness. This can be seen from the fact that it develops a completely specific way defined by the ultimate goal of this process. There are various and contradictory data on the blind. Some authors (K. Stampf and others) are inclined to see at the blind increased activity of attention; Others (Schroeder, F. shop) and mainly the teachers of the blind, observing the behavior of students during classes, argue that the attention of the blind is developed lower than that of greasting. However, it becomes incorrect to raise the question of the comparative development of mental functions at the blind and moay as a quantitative problem. It is not necessary to ask about the quantitative, but about the qualitative, functional difference of the same activity at the blind and greedy. In which direction attention is developing at the blind? That's how to ask. And here, in the establishment of quality features, everything is converged. In the same way as the blind has a tendency to develop memory in a specific way, he has a tendency towards specific attention. Or rather: both one and another process, a general tendency to compensate for blindness is mastered and gives them both one direction. The peculiarity of the blind person is the special strength of the concentration of the hearing and touch of irritation consistently entering the field of irritation of irritation and touch, unlike the visual sensations that cause a quick shift and dispersion of attention due to the competition of many simultaneous incentives. When we want to collect our attention, according to K. Stampf, we cover your eyes and artificially converting blind (1913). In this regard, it is also the opposite, balancing and limiting attention feature at the blind: the complete concentration on one subject to complete oblivion of the surrounding, complete immersion in the subject (which we meet in the silent) cannot be at the blind; The blind is forced under all the circumstances to maintain a known contact with the outside world through the ear and therefore until a certain extent should always distribute its hearing attention to the detriment of its concentration (ibid.). It would be possible to show at each chapter of psychology of the blind the same thing that we have scheduled now on the examples of memory and attention. And emotions, and feelings, and fantasy, and thinking and other processes of psyche blindly subordinate to one general trend towards blindness compensation. This unity of the entire target life attitude Adler calls Leutlin Life - a single life plan that is unconsciously carried out in the externally fragmentary episodes and periods and permeates them as a common thread, serving the basis for a person's biograph. "Because over time, all mental functions flow in the chosen direction, all mental processes receive their typical expression, the sum of tactical techniques, aspirations and abilities are formed, the amount of tactical techniques, aspirations and abilities that are covered with themselves. This is what we call the character "(O. Rüle, 1926. P. 12). Contrary to the theory of the Krecheraman, for which the nature development is only a passive deployment of that basic biological type, which inherent in a person, the teaching of Adler displays and explains the structure of the nature and personality Not from the passive deployment of the past, but from the active adaptation to the future. Hence the basic rule for the psychology of the blind: not the parts can be explained and understood as a whole, and it can be comprehended by its parts. Psychology of the blind can be designed not from the amount of individual features, Private deviations, single signs of a function or another, but these features themselves and evasion become understandable only when we proceed from a single and whole life plan, from the leit-line of the blind and determine the place and significance of each feature and a separate feature in this whole and in connection with him, i.e. with all other signs. Until now, science has very few torture To explore the identity of the blind in general, to solve him leyutline. Researchers approached the matter mostly in total and studied particular. Another synthetic experiments, the most successful, refers to the above-mentioned work of A. Petzeld. Its main position: the blind in the first place is limited in freedom of movements, helplessness in relation to space, which, unlike deaf-and-dumb, allows you to learn blindly. But the other forces and abilities of the blind can fully function in such an extent that we cannot see this in deaf-and-dumb. The most characteristic of the blind personality is a contradiction between relative helplessness in spatial terms and the possibility through speech of complete and completely adequate communication and mutual understanding with vigorous (A. Petzeld, 1925), which is fully fit into the psychological scheme of defect and compensation. This example is a special case of the opposite, which establishes the main dialectical law of psychology between organically given insufficiency and mental aspirations. The source of compensation for blindness is not the development of the touch or thinning of hearing, but the speech is the use of social experience, communication with vigorous. Petzeld with a mockery brings the opinion of the eye doctor M. Duffera, that the blind should be taken steering on ships, since they, as a result of the sophisticated hearing, should catch any danger in the fog. For Petzeld (1925) it is impossible to seriously seek compensation of blindness in the development of hearing or other individual functions. Based on the psychological analysis of spatial representations of the blind and nature of our vision, it comes to the conclusion that the main driving force of compensation of blindness is the approachment through speech to the social experience of silent - does not have natural, prisoners in the very nature of the blindness of borders for their development. Whether there is something that the blind can not know because of blindness, he asks and comes to the conclusion that has a huge fundamental importance for all psychology and pedagogy blind: the ability to know the blind person has the ability to know everything, its understanding is based on the ability To understanding everything (there is also). This means that before the blind, the possibility of achieving social value is fully over. Very instructive to compare the psychology and the possibility of developing blind and deaf. From the point of view of purely organic, deafness there is a smaller defect than blindness. Blind animal is probably more helpless than deaf. The world of nature enters into us through the eye more than through the ear. Our world is organized more as a visual phenomenon than sound. There are almost no biologically important functions that have experienced a violation in connection with the deafness; The spatial orientation and freedom of movements fall with the blindness, i.e. The most important animal feature. So, from the side of the biological blind lost more than deaf. But for a person who has artificial, social, technical functions, a deafness means a much lack than blindness. Deafness causes a little, dedicated speech, isolates a person, turns off his social contact, based on speech. Deafness as an organism, as the body has great development opportunities than blindness, but blind as a person as social ;: Unit is in an immeasurably more favorable position: he has a speech, and with it together and the possibility of social usefulness. Thus, leyutline in the psychology of the blind person is corrected to overcoming a defect through its social compensation, through the acquisition to the experience of moays, through speech. The word wins the word.

Now we can turn to the main issue scheduled in the epigraph: is it blind in the eyes of science representative of a special breed of people? If not, what are the boundaries, the size and values \u200b\u200bof all the features of his personality? What kind of blind takes part in public and cultural life? In the main thing we answered this question to all the above. In essence, it is already in the limiting condition of the epigraph itself: if the compensation processes were not sent to communicate with inquiries and the requirement to adapt to social life if blind lived only among the blind - only in this case it could work out a special type of human being . Neither at the end point to which the development of a blind child is directed, nor in the mechanism, leading to the movement of the force of development, there is no fundamental difference between a moaning and blind child. This is the most important position of psychology and pedagogy blind. Any child is endowed with relative organic inferiority in the adult society in which he grows (A. adler, 1927). This allows us to consider any childhood as an age of uncertainty, low-value and any development as aimed at overcoming this state by compensation. So, the end point of development is the conquest of the social position, and the whole process of development is the same at the blind and greasy child. Psychologists and physiologists equally recognize the dialectical nature of psychological acts and reflexes. The need to overcome, overcome the obstacle causes an increase in energy and strength. Imagine the creature is absolutely adapted, which does not meet any other obstacles to life shipments. Such a creature as needed is unable to develop, increase its functions and move forward, for what will push it on such promotion? Therefore, it is precisely the source of enormous development opportunities. These phenomena belong to the number of such elementary, common forms of behavior from the lower and higher, that they cannot be considered some kind of exceptional property of the psyche of the blind, its feature. The opposite is true: the increased development of these processes in the behavior of the blind is a special case of a general law. Already in instinctive, i.e. We meet the simplest, forms of behavior with both peculiarities that described above as the main features of the psyche of the blind: with the focus of psychological acts and their increasing in the presence of obstacles. So the focus on the future is not the exclusive affiliation of the psyche of the blind, but is a general form of behavior. I.P. Pavlov, studying the most elementary conventional connections, came across research on this fact and described it, calling the target reflex. With this paradoxical as an expression, he wants to indicate two points: 1) that these processes proceed by the type of reflex act; 2) That they are aimed at the future, in connection with which they can be understood. It remains to add that not only the end point and leading to it the development paths are common at the blind and greasy, but also the main source from which this development draws its content, the same in both of both - language. We have already led to the opinion of Petzeld, which is exactly the language, the use of the speech is an instrument of overcoming the effects of blindness. He found that the process of using the speech is fundamentally the same at the blind and in greater: he explained at the same time the theory of surrogate ideas by F. Gitshman: "Red for the Blind," he says, - the same ratio of importance, as for the greasy, although It can only be the subject of meaningful for him, not perception. Black and white in his understanding of the same opposite, as in the greedy, and their significance as a relationship of objects is also not less ... Language, if you allow the fiction, it would be completely Another only in the world of the blind. Dufur is right, when he says that the language created by the blind, it would be a little like that, but we can not agree with him when he says: "I saw that in essence blind thinking in the same language, and Speak on the other "" (A. Petzeld, 1925). So, the main source from where compensation draws strength, it turns out again to be the same in the blind and greedy. Considering the process of upbringing a blind child from the point of view of exercise on conditional reflexes, we came in our time to the following: on the part of the physiological there is no fundamental difference between the upbringing of a blind and greasy child. Such a coincidence should not be surprised to us, since we had to expect in advance that the physiological basis of behavior would discover the same structure as the psychological superstructure. So from two different ends we come to the same. The coincidence of physiological and psychological data should even more convince us in the correctness of the main output. We can formulate it like this: blindness as an organic inferiority gives an impetus for compensation processes leading to the formation of a number of features in the psychology of the blind and rebuilding all separate, private functions at an angle of the main life task. Each individual function of the mental apparatus of the blind person presents its characteristics, often very significant compared to the silent; Provided by himself, this biological process of education and accumulation of features and deviations from a normal type in the case of the lifelong of the blind in the world of the blind with the inevitability would lead to the creation of a special breed of people. Under the pressure of the social requirements of the silent, the processes of supercompensation and the use of speech, the same in the blind and greedy, all the development of these features is designed so that the structure of the identity of the blind in general tends to achieve a certain normal social type. With private deviations, we can have a normal type of person in general. The merit of establishing this fact belongs to the Stern (W. Stern, 1921). He adopted the doctrine of compensation and explained how power is born out of weakness, of deficiencies - advantages. At the blind compensatory, the ability of distinction in touch - not through the actual increase in nervous excitability, but through exercises in the observation, evaluation and understanding of differences. Also in the field of psyche, the low value of one property can be partially or fully replaced by the reinforced development of the other. Weak memory, for example, is balanced by the development of an understanding, which is put on the service of observation and memorization; The weakness of the will and deficiency of the initiative can be compensated by the suggestibility and trend towards imitation, etc. The similar look is strengthened in medicine: the only criterion of health and illness is the expedient or inappropriate functioning of the entire body, and partial deviations are evaluated only to the extent, because they are compensated or not compensated. Other features of the body. Against the "microscopic-sophisticated analysis of abnormalities", the Stern highlights the position: private functions can represent significant deviation from the norm, and yet the person or the body can be completely normal. A child with a defect is certainly a defective child. From compensation outcome, i.e. From the final formation of his personality as a whole, the degree of its deflectivity and normality depends. K. Burkelin places two main types of blind: one tends to reduce and reduce the abyss separating the blind from the greed; Another, on the contrary, emphasizes the differences and requires recognition of a special form of personality that responds to the experiences of the blind. Stern believes that this opposite also has a psychological nature; Both blinders are likely to belong to two different types (K. Burklen, 1924). Both types in our understanding mean two extreme outcome of compensation; Good luck and failure of this basic process. That in itself this process, regardless of the bad outcome, does not contain anything exclusive, inherent only in the psychology of the blind, we have already spoken. We will only add that such an elementary and basic function for all forms of activity and development, as an exercise, modern psychotechnics considers a private occasion of compensation. Therefore, it is equally mistaken to attract the blind on the basis of the presence and domination of this process in his psyche to the special type of man, and to close the eyes on the deep features that characterize this common process at the blind. V. Steinberg rightly challenges the walking slogan blind: "We are not blind, we just can't see" (K. Burklen, 1924. P. 8). All functions, all properties are rebuilt in special conditions of the development of the blind: It is impossible to reduce all the difference to one point. But at the same time, the person as a whole near the blind and moaning can belong to the same type. It is true that the world understands the world to the world, the world's greasy, the world is blind. Such an understanding would be impossible if blind in development did not approach the type of normal person. Questions arise: What explains the existence of two types of blind? Is this not determined by organic or psychological reasons? Does this not refute the above positions or at least do not contribute to significant restrictions and amendments? In some blind, as a perfectly described Shcherbina, a defect is organically compensated for, "as it would be created as if the second nature" (1916. P. 10), and they find in life with all difficulties associated with blindness, and a kind of beauty, to refuse which they are not I would agree with any personal benefits. This means that the blind mental superstructure has so harmonically compensated for a low value that became the basis of their personality; Refuse her would mean to abandon them. These cases fully confirm the doctrine of compensation. As for the incidents of compensation failures, here the psychological problem goes into a public problem: isn't the healthy children of the most huge masses of humanity reach everything they could and would have to achieve in the psychophysiological structure?

Our review is completed; We are at the shore. Our tasks did not matter anything to fully illuminate the psychology of the blind; We just wanted to outline the central point of the problem, the node in which all the threads of their psychology are tied. We found this node in the scientific idea of \u200b\u200bcompensation. What does the scientific concept of this problem separate? If the ancient world and Christianity saw permission from the problem of blindness in the mystical powers of the Spirit, if naive-biological theory saw it in automatic organic compensation, then the scientific expression of the same idea formulates the problem of the resolution of blindness as public and psychological. Surface gaze may easily seem that the idea of \u200b\u200bcompensation returns us back, to a Christian-medieval look at the positive role of suffering, delicate of flesh. In fact, you can not imagine two more opposing theories. A new teaching positively assesses not the most in itself blindness, not a defect, but forces consisting in it, sources of its overcoming, incentives for development. Not a weakness is simple, but weakness as a way to force is celebrated here a positive sign. Ideas, like people, are best known for their affairs. Scientific theories should be judged by the practical results to which they lead. What is the practical side of all theories affected above? According to the correct remark of Petzeld, the reassessment of blindness in theory created in the practice of Homer, Treverias, Edipa as a living evidence of infinity and the infinition of the development of a blind person. The ancient world has created an idea and a real type of Great Slept. The Middle Ages, on the contrary, the idea of \u200b\u200bunderestimation of blindness was embodied in the practice of the charity of the blind. According to the right German expression: "Verehrt - Ernahrt" - antiquity revealed the blind, the Middle Ages fed them. Both were an expression of the inability of donatic thinking to rise above the one-sided concept of the upbringing of blindness: it was recognized or by force, or weakness, but the fact that there is a blindness both, that is, weakness leading to force - this thought was Alien to the epoch. The beginning of the scientific approach to the problem of blindness was marked in practice an attempt to create a planned education of all blind. This was the great era in the history of the blind. But Petzeld spoke correctly: "The fact that it was possible to raise the question of the capacity of the remaining feelings at the blind and in this sense to experimentally investigate, indicates in principle on the same nature of the state of the problem that was inherent in antiquity and middle eyelids" (A. Petzeld, 1925. P. 30). In the same era of Dufur advised to do Kormchi from the blind. This epoch tried to rise over one-sidedness of antiquity and middle ages, for the first time to combine both ideas about blindness - hence the need (from weakness) and the possibility of (out of strength) of the upbringing of the blind; But then they failed to combine them dialectically and imagined the connection of power and weakness purely mechanically. Finally, our era understands the problem of blindness as a socio-psychological and has three kind of weapons in its practice to combat blindness and its consequences. True, and in our time, thoughts about the possibility of direct victory over blindness often pop up. People do not want to part with the ancient promise that the blind will be transparent. More recently, we have witnessed the revived deceived hopes, as if science will return blind vision. In such outbreaks of uncomfortable hopes, there are in the essence of the dilapidated remnants of deep antiquity and the thirst for a miracle. Not in them is the new word of our era, which, as stated, has three kinds of weapons: public prevention, social education and social labor of the blind - these are the three practical whales on which modern science is about the blind person. All these forms of fighting science must complete, bringing to the end that they created former epochs in this direction. The idea of \u200b\u200bpreventing blindness should be grafted by the enormous folk masses. It is also necessary to eliminate the disabled education of the blind and erase the line between the special and normal school: the upbringing of a blind child must be organized as a child's education capable of normal development; Education should really create from a blind normal, socially full-fledged person and identify the word and the concept of "defective" in the appendix to the blind. Finally, modern science should give blind right to public labor not in its humiliating, philantropically disabled formas (as it has been cultivated so far), and in forms that meet the true essence of labor, the only capable of creating the necessary social position for the personality. But isn't it clear that all these three tasks set by blindness, by nature the essence of the task of public and that only a new society completely can allow them to allow them? A new society creates a new type of blind person. Now the first stones of the new society are laid in the USSR and, it means that the first features of this new type are folded. For the first time published: COLD. cit. At 6 t. M.: Pedagogy, 1983. T. 5. P. 86-100. Source:http://dugward.ru/library/vygotskiy/vygotskiy_slopoy_rebonok.html

They (blind. - L.V.It is developing such features that we cannot see in sorts, and it must be assumed that in case of exclusive communication of the blind with the blind, without any intercourse, there could be a special breed of people.
K. Burkelen.*

______________________

* K. Burklen, 1924. P. 3.

In essence, the science of the blind person, since she went to the truth, all comes down to the deployment of one central idea, which mankind thousands of millennia is trying to master, because it is not only the idea of \u200b\u200bthe blind, but in general about the psychological nature of man. In the psychology of the blind, as in every knowledge, you can be mistaken in different ways, but to go to the truth only one way. This idea is reduced to the fact that blindness is not only no view (defect of a separate organ); It causes a deepest restructuring of all the forces of the body and personality,

The blindness, creating a new, special personality warehouse, causes new forces to life, changes the normal directions of functions, creatively and organically re-poses and forms human psyche. Consequently, blindness is not only a defect, minus, weakness, but in some sense the source of the identification of abilities, plus, force (oddly enough and it looks like a paradox!).

This idea survived the three main stages, from the comparisons of which it becomes a clear direction, the trend of its development. The first era can be indicated as a mystical, the second is naive-biological and third, modern - scientific or social and psychological.

Christianity, which brought with him the revaluation of values, in essence only changed the moral content of this idea, but left unchanged the very essence. "Latest here", to which, of course, treated and blind, was promised to become "first there." In the Middle Ages, it was the most important dogma of the philosophy of blindness, in which, as in any deprivation, suffering, saw spiritual value; The church pale was given to the undivided ownership of the blind. It marked at the same time and a benchmark in earthly life, and proximity to God. In the weak body, they talked then, lives a high spirit. Again in blindness, some kind of mystical second side opened, some kind of spiritual value, some positive meaning. Mystical should be called this stage in the development of psychology of the blind not only due to the fact that it was painted with religious ideas and beliefs, not only because the blind in every way brought to God: visible, but not seeing - to a seeing, but invisible, as they said Jewish wise men.

In essence, the ability that was attributed to the blind were considered the supersatural forces of the soul, their connection with blindness seemed mysterious, wonderful, incomprehensible. These views arose not from experience, not from the testimony of the blind themselves about themselves, not from scientific research of the blind and its public role, but from the teachings about the spirit and body and faith in the disembodied spirit. And yet, although the story of Dotla destroyed, and the science to the end exposed the inconsistency of this philosophy, a particle of truth was hidden in its deepest foundations.

In theoretical plan, a new understanding was expressed in the teaching on the vicariate of the senses. According to this view, the loss of one of the functions of perception, the lack of one body is compensated by the increased functioning and development of other organs. As in the absence or illness of one of the paired organs - for example, the kidney or lung, another, the healthy body compensatoryly develops, increases and takes on the sick place, taking on part of its functions, and the defect of view causes an increased development of hearing, touch and other remaining senses. . Created whole legends about the excess sharpness of tanging at the blind; They talked about the wisdom of the good nature, which by one hand selects, and the other gives back the polar and cares about his creatures; believed that any blind, thanks to one of this fact, there is a blind musician, i.e. man gifted with increased and exceptional hearing; Opened a new, special, inaccessible sixth feeling at the blind. The basis of all these legends was true observations and facts from the life of the blind, but falsely interpreted and therefore distorted beyond recognition. K. Burklen collected the opinions of various authors (X.A. Friece, L. Bachko, Stuche, X.V. Rothermund, I.V. Klein, etc.), which in various forms developed this idea (K. Burklen, 1924) . However, studies very soon found the inconsistency of such a theory. They pointed out as an unspokenly established fact that there are no dry-tunes of the functions of touch and hearing; that, on the contrary, very often these functions are in the blind are developed at least as in the silent; Finally, where we meet with an increased compared to the normal function of touch, this phenomenon turns out to be secondary, dependent, derivative, rather due to development than its cause. The specified phenomenon arises not from direct physiological compensation of the defect of view (as an increase in the kidneys), but a very complex and indirectly in common social and psychological compensation, which does not replace the resulting function and not standing in place of the missing body.

Therefore, there can be no speech about what the vicariate of the senses. Rightly noted Luzardi, that the finger will never teach the blind to really see. E. Binder, after Appia, showed that the functions of the senses are not transferred from one body to another and that the expression "vicar of feelings", i.e. The replacement of the senses is incorrectly used in physiology. The studies of Fesbach, published in the physiological archive of E. Pfluger, who have shown its inconsistency, had crucial importance for refuting this dogma. The dispute was allowed experimental psychology. She pointed out the way to properly understand the facts that were based on this theory.

E. Meiman challenged the position of Fisbach that with a defect of one feeling all feelings suffer. He argued that in practice there is a kind of replacement of perception functions (E. Meumann, 1911). V. Wondt concluded that the replacement in the field of physiological functions is a special case of exercise and fixtures. Therefore, the substitution should be understood not in the sense of direct taking on themselves by other organs of the physiological functions of the eye, but the difficult restructuring of all mental activities caused by a violation of the most important function and aimed at the disposal of the Association, attention to the creation and development of a new type of equilibrium of the organism instead of violated.

But if such a naive-biological concept and turned out to be incorrect and had to give up his place another theory, yet she made a huge step forward along the way to the conquest of the scientific truth about blindness. She for the first time with the measure of scientific observation and with the criterion of experience came to the fact that the blindness is not only a defect, only insufficiency, but also causes new forces to life and activities, new features and performs some creative-creative organic work, although this Theory and could not specify what exactly such work is. How much is huge and great the practical importance of such a step towards the truth, one can judge by the fact that this era created the education and formation of the blind. One point of Braille did for the blind more than thousands of benefactors; The ability to read and write was more important than the "sixth sense" and the sophistication of tanging and hearing. At the monument of V. Gaiui, the founder of the formation of the blind, written words addressed to the blind child: "You will find light in education and in labor." In knowledge and work I saw the traffic permission of the tragedy of blindness and indicated this path to which we go now. The Epoch of the traffic police gave the blind education; Our era should give them difficulty.

In contact with the external environment, a conflict arises caused by the inconsistency of an insufficient organ or a function with their tasks, which leads to an increased possibility of the disease and mortality. This conflict creates both increased opportunities and stimuli to oversepension. The defect becomes thus the initial point and the main driving force of the psychic development of the personality. If the struggle ends for the body of victory, then it will not only cope with the defective difficulties, but also rises in its development to the highest level, creating gifts from defectivity, from a defect - ability, from weakness - force, from low-value - superstibility. So, the blind from the birth of N. Suunderson made up a textbook of geometry (A. adler, 1927). What huge tension should have achieved psychic forces and a tendency to overthone, caused by a defect in view, so that it can not only cope with the spatial limitations that blindness entails, but also to master the space in higher forms available to humanity only in scientific Thinking, in geometric constructions. Where we have much lower degrees of this process, the main law remains the same. It is curious that in the schools of painting Adler found 70% of students with anomalies of vision and as many students with speech defects in dramatic art schools (A. adler. In the book: Heilen und Bilder, 1914. P. 21). The calling for painting, the ability to her rose from eye defects, artistic gifts - from overcomed by the spectacles of the speech apparatus.

However, the lucky outcome is not at all the only or even most frequent result of the struggle for overcoming the defect. It would be naive to think that any disease is invariably ends safely that each defect is happily turns into talent. Any struggle has two outcome. The second outcome is the failure of the ultriction, the complete victory of the sense of weakness, the asociality of the behavior, the creation of protective positions from its weakness, turning it into weapons, the fictitious purpose of existence, in essence, the madness, the impossibility of the normal mental life of the personality is escape to the disease, neurosis. Between these two poles there is a huge and inexhaustible variety of various degrees of good luck and failure, giftedness and neurosis - from the minimum to maximum. The existence of extreme points indicates the limits of the phenomenon itself and gives the extreme expression of its essence and nature.

The blindness creates difficulties when entering a blind child to life. Conflict flashes along this line. In fact, the defect is implemented as social dislocation. The blindness puts its carrier to a certain and difficult social position. A sense of low value, uncertainty and weakness arise as a result of assessing the blind position. As the reaction of the mental apparatus, trends towards overspending are developing.

They are aimed at the formation of a socially full-fledged personality, to conquer the position in public life. They are aimed at overcoming the conflict and, therefore, do not develop the touch, hearing, etc., and capture the entire person without a residue, starting from the most inner core; They seek not to replace sight, but to overcome and overcompensate social conflict, psychological instability as a result of a physical defect. This is the essence of a new look.

Previously thought that a blind child had all his life and all the development would go along the line of his blindness. The new law says they will go against this line. The one who wants to comprehend the psychology of the Personality of the blind directly from the fact of blindness, as directly determined by this fact, will understand it as incorrectly as the one who in the vaccination of the Shaw will only see the disease. True, the vaccination of smallpox is the vaccination of the disease, but in essence it is the grafting of the superpower. In the light of this law, everyone has an explanation of all private psychological observations on the blind in their attitude towards leutlinescence, to a single life plan, to the ultimate goal, to the "fifth act", as Adler is expressed. Not due to the past, and with a focus on the future, individual psychological phenomena and processes should be understood. For a complete understanding of all the features of the blind, we must open the tendencies embedded in his psychology, embryos of the future. In essence, these are general requirements of dialectical thinking in science: for full lighting of some phenomenon, it is necessary to consider it in connection with his past and future. This is the prospect of the future introduces Adler to psychology.

Almost all researchers converge, for example, in the fact that at the blind, we meet in general higher than the greater, the development of memory. The last comparative study of E. Krechmer (1928) has shown that the blind has better verbal, mechanical and rational memory. A. Petzeld cites the same fact, a number of studies (A. Petzeld, 1925). The Burkelin gathered the views of many authors coinciding in the same - in the approval of the special force of development in the blind memory, which is usually the memory of Emirates (K. Burk Len, 1924). Adler would ask: for which the blind strong memory is developed, i.e. what is due to this processing what functions in the behavior of the personality is fulfilling what need is?

It would be more correct to say that the blind has a tendency towards increased memory development; Develop: whether it actually is very high - it depends on many difficult circumstances. The tendency set up with a non-interest in the psyche of the blind, becomes perfectly explained in the compensation. To conquer a position in public life, a blind person is forced to develop all its compensating functions. PA to mive in the blind is developing under pressure trends towards compensation of the lowestness created by blindness. This can be seen from the fact that it develops a completely specific way defined by the ultimate goal of this process.

There are various and contradictory data on the blind. Some authors (K. Stampf and others) are inclined to see at the blind increased activity of attention; Others (Schroeder, F. shop) and mainly the teachers of the blind, observing the behavior of students during classes, argue that the attention of the blind is developed lower than that of greasting. However, it becomes incorrect to raise the question of the comparative development of mental functions at the blind and moay as a quantitative problem. It is not necessary to ask about the quantitative, but about the qualitative, functional difference of the same activity at the blind and greedy. In which direction attention is developing at the blind? That's how to ask. And here, in the establishment of quality features, everything is converged. In the same way as the blind has a tendency to develop memory in a specific way, he has a tendency towards specific attention. Or rather: both one and another process, a general tendency to compensate for blindness is mastered and gives them both one direction. The originality of the attention of the blind way in the special power of concentration consistently entering the consciousness of irritation of hearing and touch, in contrast to simultaneously, i.e. Immediately entering the field of visual sensations, causing a quick shift and dispersion due to the competition of many simultaneous incentives. When we want to collect our attention, according to K. Stampf, we cover your eyes and artificially converting blind (1913). In this regard, it is also the opposite, balancing and limiting attention feature at the blind: the complete concentration on one subject to complete oblivion of the surrounding, complete immersion in the subject (which we meet in the silent) cannot be at the blind; The blind is forced under all the circumstances to maintain a known contact with the outside world through the ear and therefore until a certain extent should always distribute its hearing attention to the detriment of its concentration (ibid.).

It would be possible to show at each chapter of psychology of the blind the same thing that we have scheduled now on the examples of memory and attention. And emotions, and feelings, and fantasy, and thinking and other processes of psyche blindly subordinate to one general trend towards blindness compensation. This unity of the entire target life attitude Adler calls Leutlin Life - a single life plan that is unconsciously carried out in the externally fragmentary episodes and periods and permeates them as a common thread, serving the basis for a person's biograph. "Since over time, all mental functions flow in the chosen direction, all mental processes receive their typical expression, the sum of tactical techniques, aspirations and abilities are formed, which are covered by the determined life plan. Here we call the character" (O. Rule , 1926. P. 12). Contrary to the theory of Krechmer, for which the nature development is only a passive deployment of that basic biological type, which inherent in the person, the teachings of Adler displays and explains the structure of the nature and personality is not from the passive deployment of the past, but from the active adaptation to the future. Hence the main rule for the psychology of the blind: not the parts can be explained and understood by the whole, and from the whole can be comprehended by its part. The psychology of the blind can be designed not from the sum of individual features, private deviations, single signs of a function, but these features themselves and evasion become understandable only when we proceed from a single and whole life plan, from the leit-line of the blind and determine The place and significance of each feature and a separate feature in this whole and in connection with it, i.e. with all other signs.

Until now, science has very few torture to investigate the identity of the blind in general, to solve him leyutline. Researchers approached the matter mostly in total and studied particular. Another synthetic experiments, the most successful, refers to the above-mentioned work of A. Petzeld. Its main position: the blind in the first place is limited in freedom of movements, helplessness in relation to space, which, unlike deaf-and-dumb, allows you to learn blindly. But the other forces and abilities of the blind can fully function in such an extent that we cannot see this in deaf-and-dumb. The most characteristic of the blind personality is a contradiction between relative helplessness in spatial terms and the possibility through speech of complete and completely adequate communication and mutual understanding with vigorous (A. Petzeld, 1925), which is fully fit into the psychological scheme of defect and compensation. This example is a special case of the opposite, which establishes the main dialectical law of psychology between organically given insufficiency and mental aspirations. The source of compensation for blindness is not the development of the touch or thinning of hearing, but the speech is the use of social experience, communication with vigorous. Petzeld with a mockery brings the opinion of the eye doctor M. Duffera, that the blind should be taken steering on ships, since they, as a result of the sophisticated hearing, should catch any danger in the fog. For Petzeld (1925) it is impossible to seriously seek compensation of blindness in the development of hearing or other individual functions. Based on the psychological analysis of spatial representations of the blind and nature of our vision, it comes to the conclusion that the main driving force of compensation of blindness is the approachment through speech to the social experience of silent - does not have natural, prisoners in the very nature of the blindness of borders for their development. Whether there is something that the blind can not know because of blindness, he asks and comes to the conclusion that has a huge fundamental importance for all psychology and pedagogy blind: the ability to know the blind person has the ability to know everything, its understanding is based on the ability To understanding everything (there is also). This means that before the blind, the possibility of achieving social value is fully over.

Very instructive to compare the psychology and the possibility of developing blind and deaf. From the point of view of purely organic, deafness there is a smaller defect than blindness. Blind animal is probably more helpless than deaf. The world of nature enters into us through the eye more than through the ear. Our world is organized more as a visual phenomenon than sound. There are almost no biologically important functions that have experienced a violation in connection with the deafness; The spatial orientation and freedom of movements fall with the blindness, i.e. The most important animal feature.

So, from the side of the biological blind lost more than deaf. But for a person who has artificial, social, technical functions, a deafness means a much lack than blindness. Deafness causes a little, dedicated speech, isolates a person, turns off his social contact, based on speech. Deafness as an organism, as the body has great development opportunities than blindness, but blind as a person as social ;: Unit is in an immeasurably more favorable position: he has a speech, and with it together and the possibility of social usefulness. Thus, leyutline in the psychology of the blind person is corrected to overcoming a defect through its social compensation, through the acquisition to the experience of moays, through speech. The word wins the word.

Neither at the end point to which the development of a blind child is directed, nor in the mechanism, leading to the movement of the force of development, there is no fundamental difference between a moaning and blind child. This is the most important position of psychology and pedagogy blind. Any child is endowed with relative organic inferiority in the adult society in which he grows (A. adler, 1927). This allows us to consider any childhood as an age of uncertainty, low-value and any development as aimed at overcoming this state by compensation. So, the end point of development is the conquest of the social position, and the whole process of development is the same at the blind and greasy child.

Psychologists and physiologists equally recognize the dialectical nature of psychological acts and reflexes. The need to overcome, overcome the obstacle causes an increase in energy and strength. Imagine the creature is absolutely adapted, which does not meet any other obstacles to life shipments. Such a creature as needed is unable to develop, increase its functions and move forward, for what will push it on such promotion? Therefore, it is precisely the source of enormous development opportunities. These phenomena belong to the number of such elementary, common forms of behavior from the lower and higher, that they cannot be considered some kind of exceptional property of the psyche of the blind, its feature. The opposite is true: the increased development of these processes in the behavior of the blind is a special case of a general law. Already in instinctive, i.e. We meet the simplest, forms of behavior with both peculiarities that described above as the main features of the psyche of the blind: with the focus of psychological acts and their increasing in the presence of obstacles. So the focus on the future is not the exclusive affiliation of the psyche of the blind, but is a general form of behavior.

I.P. Pavlov, studying the most elementary conventional connections, came across research on this fact and described it, calling the target reflex. With this paradoxical as an expression, he wants to indicate two points: 1) that these processes proceed by the type of reflex act; 2) That they are aimed at the future, in connection with which they can be understood.

It remains to add that not only the end point and leading to it the development paths are common at the blind and greasy, but also the main source from which this development draws its content, the same in both of both - language. We have already led to the opinion of Petzeld, which is exactly the language, the use of the speech is an instrument of overcoming the effects of blindness. He also found that the process of using the speech is fundamentally the same at the blind and in greater: he explained at the same time the theory of surrogate ideas by F. Gitschman: "Red for the blind," he says, is the same ratio of importance as for the greasy, although it is for It can only be the subject of meaning, not perception. Black and white in his understanding of the same opposite, as in the greedy, and their significance as a relationship of objects is also not less ... The language of the blind, if you allow the fiction, would be completely different only in the world of the blind. Dufur is right when he says that the language created by the blind, it would be a little like that, but we can not agree with him when he says: "I saw that in essence the blind people think in the same language, but they speak friend "" (A. Petzeld, 1925).

So, the main source from where compensation draws strength, it turns out again to be the same in the blind and greedy. Considering the process of upbringing a blind child from the point of view of exercise on conditional reflexes, we came in our time to the following: on the part of the physiological there is no fundamental difference between the upbringing of a blind and greasy child. Such a coincidence should not be surprised to us, since we had to expect in advance that the physiological basis of behavior would discover the same structure as the psychological superstructure. So from two different ends we come to the same.

The coincidence of physiological and psychological data should even more convince us in the correctness of the main output. We can formulate it like this: blindness as an organic inferiority gives an impetus for compensation processes leading to the formation of a number of features in the psychology of the blind and rebuilding all separate, private functions at an angle of the main life task. Each individual function of the mental apparatus of the blind person presents its characteristics, often very significant compared to the silent; Provided by himself, this biological process of education and accumulation of features and deviations from a normal type in the case of the lifelong of the blind in the world of the blind with the inevitability would lead to the creation of a special breed of people. Under the pressure of the social requirements of the silent, the processes of supercompensation and the use of speech, the same in the blind and greedy, all the development of these features is designed so that the structure of the identity of the blind in general tends to achieve a certain normal social type. With private deviations, we can have a normal type of person in general. The merit of establishing this fact belongs to the Stern (W. Stern, 1921). He adopted the doctrine of compensation and explained how power is born out of weakness, of deficiencies - advantages. At the blind compensatory, the ability of distinction in touch - not through the actual increase in nervous excitability, but through exercises in the observation, evaluation and understanding of differences. Also in the field of psyche, the low value of one property can be partially or fully replaced by the reinforced development of the other. Weak memory, for example, is balanced by the development of an understanding, which is put on the service of observation and memorization; The weakness of the will and deficiency of the initiative can be compensated by the suggestibility and trend towards imitation, etc. The similar look is strengthened in medicine: the only criterion of health and illness is the expedient or inappropriate functioning of the entire body, and partial deviations are evaluated only to the extent, because they are compensated or not compensated. Other features of the body. Against the "microscopic-sophisticated analysis of abnormalities", the Stern highlights the position: private functions can represent significant deviation from the norm, and yet the person or the body can be completely normal. A child with a defect is certainly a defective child. From compensation outcome, i.e. From the final formation of his personality as a whole, the degree of its deflectivity and normality depends.

K. Burkelin places two main types of blind: one tends to reduce and reduce the abyss separating the blind from the greed; Another, on the contrary, emphasizes the differences and requires recognition of a special form of personality that responds to the experiences of the blind. Stern believes that this opposite also has a psychological nature; Both blinders are likely to belong to two different types (K. Burklen, 1924). Both types in our understanding mean two extreme outcome of compensation; Good luck and failure of this basic process. That in itself this process, regardless of the bad outcome, does not contain anything exclusive, inherent only in the psychology of the blind, we have already spoken. We will only add that such an elementary and basic function for all forms of activity and development, as an exercise, modern psychotechnics considers a private occasion of compensation. Therefore, it is equally mistaken to attract the blind on the basis of the presence and domination of this process in his psyche to the special type of man, and to close the eyes on the deep features that characterize this common process at the blind. V. Steinberg rightly challenges the walking slogan blind: "We are not blind, we just can't see" (K. Burklen, 1924. P. 8).

All functions, all properties are rebuilt in special conditions of the development of the blind: It is impossible to reduce all the difference to one point. But at the same time, the person as a whole near the blind and moaning can belong to the same type. It is true that the world understands the world to the world, the world's greasy, the world is blind. Such an understanding would be impossible if blind in development did not approach the type of normal person. Questions arise: What explains the existence of two types of blind? Is this not determined by organic or psychological reasons? Does this not refute the above positions or at least do not contribute to significant restrictions and amendments? In some blind, as a perfectly described Shcherbina, a defect is organically compensated for, "as it would be created as if the second nature" (1916. P. 10), and they find in life with all difficulties associated with blindness, and a kind of beauty, to refuse which they are not I would agree with any personal benefits. This means that the blind mental superstructure has so harmonically compensated for a low value that became the basis of their personality; Refuse her would mean to abandon them. These cases fully confirm the doctrine of compensation. As for the incidents of compensation failures, here the psychological problem goes into a public problem: isn't the healthy children of the most huge masses of humanity reach everything they could and would have to achieve in the psychophysiological structure?

What is the practical side of all theories affected above? According to the correct remark of Petzeld, the reassessment of blindness in theory created in the practice of Homer, Treverias, Edipa as a living evidence of infinity and the infinition of the development of a blind person. The ancient world has created an idea and a real type of Great Slept. The Middle Ages, on the contrary, the idea of \u200b\u200bunderestimation of blindness was embodied in the practice of the charity of the blind. According to the right German expression: "Verehrt - Ernahrt" - antiquity revealed the blind, the Middle Ages fed them. Both were an expression of the inability of donatic thinking to climb over the unilateral concept of the upbringing of blindness: it was recognized or strength, or weakness, but the fact that the blindness is also the other, i.e. Weakness leading to force - this thought was alien to that epoch.

The beginning of the scientific approach to the problem of blindness was marked in practice an attempt to create a planned education of all blind. This was the great era in the history of the blind. But Petzeld spoke correctly: "The fact that it was possible to raise the question of the capacity of the remaining feelings at the blind and in this sense to experimentally investigate, indicates in principle on the same nature of the state of the problem that was inherent in antiquity and middle eyelids" (A. Petzeld, 1925. P. 30). In the same era of Dufur advised to do Kormchi from the blind. This epoch tried to rise over one-sidedness of antiquity and middle ages, for the first time to combine both ideas about blindness - hence the need (from weakness) and the possibility of (out of strength) of the upbringing of the blind; But then they failed to combine them dialectically and imagined the connection of power and weakness purely mechanically.

Finally, our era understands the problem of blindness as a socio-psychological and has three kind of weapons in its practice to combat blindness and its consequences. True, and in our time, thoughts about the possibility of direct victory over blindness often pop up. People do not want to part with the ancient promise that the blind will be transparent. More recently, we have witnessed the revived deceived hopes, as if science will return blind vision. In such outbreaks of uncomfortable hopes, there are in the essence of the dilapidated remnants of deep antiquity and the thirst for a miracle. Not in them is the new word of our era, which, as stated, has three kinds of weapons: public prevention, social education and social labor of the blind - these are the three practical whales on which modern science is about the blind person. All these forms of fighting science must complete, bringing to the end that they created former epochs in this direction. The idea of \u200b\u200bpreventing blindness should be grafted by the enormous folk masses. It is also necessary to eliminate the disabled education of the blind and erase the line between the special and normal school: the upbringing of a blind child must be organized as a child's education capable of normal development; Education should really create from a blind normal, socially full-fledged person and identify the word and the concept of "defective" in the appendix to the blind. Finally, modern science should give blind right to public labor not in its humiliating, philantropically disabled formas (as it has been cultivated so far), and in forms that meet the true essence of labor, the only capable of creating the necessary social position for the personality. But isn't it clear that all these three tasks set by blindness, by nature the essence of the task of public and that only a new society completely can allow them to allow them? A new society creates a new type of blind person. Now the first stones of the new society are laid in the USSR and, it means that the first features of this new type are folded.

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) Russian and Soviet psychologist, founder of the cultural and historical school in psychology.

They are aimed at the formation of a socially full-fledged personality, to conquer the position in public life. They are aimed at overcoming the conflict and, therefore, do not develop the touch, ear, etc., and capture the entire person without a residue, starting from the very inner her kernel; They seek not to replace sight, but to overcome and overcompensate social conflict, psychological instability as a result of a physical defect. This is the essence of a new look.